Abstract:In the early Shang Dynasty, traces of pouring gates on excavated bronze round tripod vessels indicate that the gating system was originally set on the belly. From the middle Shang Dynasty, the pouring gate gradually shifted from the belly to the legs, and bronze round tripod vessels were cast in an inverted orientation. This study compared the filling and solidification behaviors of bronze round tripod vessels under different gating-system configurations through computer simulations. Based on a late Shang Dynasty bronze round tripod in the collection of Shanghai Museum, a three-dimensional CAD model was constructed. Drawing on the investigation into the gating system of Shang Dynasty bronze tripods, three different pouring-gate configurations were designed:1) a single pouring gate on the belly; 2) a single pouring gate on one leg; 3) two pouring gates on two separate legs. Under the same pouring temperature and velocity, computer simulation experiments were conducted for all these three schemes. When the pouring gate was set on the belly, the simulation revealed extensive cold-shut defects on the large areas of the belly and on the two legs farthest from the pouring gate. These defects resulted from dispersed molten bronze streams converging in these regions during filling. Such convergence increased the likelihood of cold shuts and related casting defects in bronze tripod. When the pouring gate was set on a single leg, misrun and cold-shut defects occurred at the belly bottom near the ungated legs and on the two ungated legs. It was an improvement compared with the belly-gate configuration. When the pouring gates were set on two legs, only minor cold-shut defects appeared. It was a significantly improved filling process.  In terms of solidification, all the three pouring-gate configurations produced shrinkage defects, especially at the parts such as the two ears, the three legs, the junctions of the rim and the ears, and the thicker decorative regions. Changing the position of the pouring gate had limited influence on these solidification-related defects. Therefore, applying the principle of uniform wall thickness, such as using hollow legs and hollow ears, would help reduce the occurrence of shrinkage defects. The design of the gating system had a significant effect on the casting quality and filling process of Shang bronze tripods. Setting the pouring gates on the legs of the round tripod vessel proved superior to placing them on the belly, offering a key explanation for the evolutionary shift in gating-system design during the Shang Dynasty.

Abstract:The Lengshuichong-type bronze drum, from the Chinese “Eight-Type” classification system, represents the highest level of bronze manufacturing in Guangxi from the Han to the Southern Dynasties. According to the decorative features and geographic distribution, this type can be divided into three sub-types:Honghe, Yongjiang and Xunjiang. This study analyzed the chemical composition and lead isotope ratios of 47 samples from Lengshuichong-type bronze drums unearthed in Guangxi, including 16 previously published datasets, to investigate alloying practices and ore sources associated with the three sub-types of bronze drums. By integrating typological analysis and literature data, the study further explored the developmental sequence of these sub-types and their ethnic distribution. The analysis results show that the three sub-types had relatively consistent alloying patterns and, in most cases, shared mineral sources. The difference between the three sub-types mainly reflected their developmental sequence. They were produced by the same ethnic group, who continually exploited the same or similar ore deposits across different periods.

Abstract:In order to explore the composition of the adhesive used in the inlay process, this work analyzed a copper bracelet fragment excavated from M17 of the Lijiashan cemetery in 1972. Three-dimensional video microscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), Raman spectrometry, Fourier transform micro-infrared spectrometry (micro-FTIR) and thermally-assisted hydrolysis and methylation-pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (THM-Py-GC/MS) were employed to characterize the adhesive materials. The results show that the adhesive was composed of drying oil, horn powder/ashes, and wax. The presence of horn powder/ashes in such contexts was uncommon. These findings deepen the scientific understanding of malachite/turquoise inlay technologies used during the Bronze Age in Southwest China, and provide a scientific foundation for future conservation work.

Abstract:The Qionglai kiln is one of the most representative ancient folk kiln systems in Sichuan Province. Its porcelain tradition began in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, and in the Five Dynasties period, developed a distinctive high-temperature ware characterized by a fully applied opaque copper-green glaze. As one of the earliest kilns in China to successfully produce high-temperature copper-green glaze, it holds an important place in the history of Chinese ceramics. However, the color generation mechanism, layered structure, and technological principles of its opaque copper-green glaze have not yet been systematically examined from a scientific perspective. This study investigates shards of opaque copper-green glazed porcelain unearthed from the Five-Dynasty stratum of the Nanhe Shifangtang kiln site of the Qionglai kiln. A series of archaeometric analyses were conducted, in combination with archaeological context and laboratory data, to explore the chemical composition of the body and glaze, the microstructural characteristics, and color generation mechanism, thereby revealing the material composition and technological features of this glaze type. The results indicate that the porcelain bodies of the Five-Dynasty Qionglai wares are typical southern porcelain-stone bodies, characterized by high silica and low alumina contents. The glazes belong to a SiO₂-Al₂O₃-CaO high-temperature calcium-glaze system and contain moderate amounts of MgO, P₂O₅, and MnO, reflecting a formulation based primarily on siliceous raw materials combined with a plant-ash flux. Copper and iron are identified as the dominant coloring elements in the glaze. Copper acts as the principal chromophore, while lead and tin occur only in trace quantities, suggesting that the colorant did not originate from bronze alloys but rather from copper-bearing minerals or corrosion products. Microscopic observations reveal that the glaze layers of the opaque copper-green porcelain contain uniformly dispersed submicron spherical droplets, demonstrating that opacification results from liquid-liquid phase separation during firing. These fine droplets induce Rayleigh scattering, generating structural color, whereas Cu²⁺ ions contribute chemical color through selective light absorption. The synergistic effect of structural and chemical colors produces the characteristic opaque green tone. Technological examination further shows that some samples exhibit a distinct two-layer structure in cross section:an upper opaque green layer and a lower transparent bluish-green layer, with mutual diffusion at the interface. Comparative compositional and microstructural analyses confirm that this layering was intentionally achieved by craftsmen through the application of a double-glazing process, followed by diffusion and fusion of the two glazes during high-temperature firing. Although the upper and lower layers share similar overall compositions, they differ in the relative contents of Al₂O₃, CaO, and CuO, supporting the interpretation that deliberate superimposition of glazes and subsequent intermixing produced the observed gradation. The innovations and contributions of this study can be summarized in three aspects. First, it demonstrates that potters at the Qionglai kiln during the Five Dynasties period were capable of precisely controlling glaze opacity and hue by adjusting oxidation-reduction conditions, glazing methods, and layering techniques, reflecting a high level of technological sophistication and aesthetic sensitivity. Second, based on systematic archaeometric evidence, this study for the first time elucidates the coloration mechanism and dual-layer glazing process of the Qionglai opaque copper-green glaze, thereby filling a research gap in the study of high-temperature copper-green glaze technology in Southwestern China. Third, the findings provide reliable scientific data that can support the restoration of ancient ceramic technologies and facilitate comparative studies of regional porcelain production. In conclusion, the coloration of the opaque copper-green glaze from the Qionglai kiln of the Five Dynasties period results from the synergistic effect of structural color produced by liquid-liquid phase separation and chemical color produced by copper ions. The layered glaze structure was formed through the deliberate application of a double-glaze coating and the subsequent interdiffusion that occurred during firing. These findings reveal the material basis and technological characteristics of the Five-Dynasty Qionglai opaque copper-green glaze and provide solid evidence for understanding the composition and production techniques of high-temperature glazes within this kiln system.

Abstract:The firing temperatures of ancient porcelain, pottery, bricks, tiles, and clay casing molds vary, and such variations can influence applicability of luminescence dating methods. In this study, four types of cultural relics with different firing temperatures were selected:a celadon porcelain shard unearthed from Qinglong Town Site, a pottery fragment unearthed from Guangfulin Site, a glazed brick unearthed from Longshan Tomb Group, and three clay casing molds for bronze wares unearthed from Sanxingdui Site. Multiple luminescence dating methods were applied to these samples. The results indicate that for luminescence dating of ceramic cultural relics, the accuracy of age could be improved through cross-validation using multiple techniques. Following the principle of minimal sampling damage, mixed mineral grains were used in dating analysis, as the limited amount of material made it difficult to effectively separate minerals. For luminescence dating of mixed mineral grains in ceramic relics, when the firing temperature is low (below about 450℃) or high but with a short firing duration, as in the case of the clay casing molds, conventional thermoluminescence (TL) and pre-dose methods fail to completely reset the luminescence signals during firing. In such cases, the pIR₅₀IR₁₇₀ signal single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) method can be used for dating. When the firing temperature is between about 450℃ and 1 150℃, as in the case of the pottery and brick samples, conventional TL and pIR₅₀IR₁₇₀ signal SAR methods are applicable to date K-feldspar minerals. For quartz mineral grains, the pre-dose method can be used for dating, though it is only applicable to cultural relics with the age ≤ 1 500 years. When the firing temperature is ≥ 1 150℃, as in the case of the porcelain sample, most K-feldspar crystals melt and vitrify, making conventional TL and pIR₅₀IR₁₇₀ signal SAR methods unsuitable. The pre-dose and OSL signal SAR methods can be used for dating quartz grains. This study preliminarily demonstrates that the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) method has potential for dating low-temperature fired cultural relics, and is applicable across a wider range of firing temperatures.

Abstract:Qi Baishi’s Peony is a representative work among his flower and bird paintings. The bright and vivid tones of the peony, with the use of multiple colors such as red and black, create a strong visual impact and embody his distinctive “red flower and ink leaf” painting style. The variations in ink intensity and the multi-layered application of color lend to the peony petals and branches a sense of depth and texture. In this study, hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology was applied to comprehensively capture the visual and material information contained in Peony in a real, comprehensive, and multi-dimensional manner. Using HSI processing, the painting process and visual expression characteristics of the painting were analyzed. By comparing single-channel images and hyperspectral curves of representative calligraphy and painting elements, the differences in materials and techniques used in the painting were identified. Grayscale images and pseudocolor composite images at different wavelengths, along with hyperspectral principal component transformed images, were used to enhance and distinguish previously invisible information, providing insight into the artist’s painting process. When no standard spectral database of pigments was available, hyperspectral recognition was employed to identify pigment distribution areas by extracting self-referenced spectral features directly from the painting. This provides a scientific foundation for future conservation efforts, including color fading restoration and long-term condition monitoring, as well as for authentication studies. Supervised classification based on hyperspectral images data enabled a clearer understanding of pigment distributions and compositional layouts. Furthermore, grayscale and pseudocolor HSI transformations revealed gradient distributions and multi-layered stacking relationships among pictorial elements. The results demonstrate that in Peony, Qi Baishi skillfully integrated variations in ink tone—depth, concentration, lightness, dryness, and wetness—with the dynamic interplay between “void” (rendered) and “solid” (outlined) strokes. The painting also exhibits multiple layering techniques and the use of seals made from different ink materials, reflecting a hybrid stylistic approach on paper. Overall, this study offers new technical tools and analytical perspectives for in-depth exploration of Qi Baishi’s artistic techniques and expressive methods.

Abstract:The minor carpentry work of Gongshu Hall in Huyi District, Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province is an isolated structure of Tiangong Louge (halls and pavilions of the Heavenly Palace) described in Yingzao Fashi (State Building Standards). The polychrome paintings on this carpentry work are smooth, vivid and lifelike, and have been praised by scholars for their delicate craftsmanship. However, after more than six centuries, these paintings have suffered from blurring due to factors such as smoke deposition, discoloration, surface dust, and detachment of the ground layer, seriously affecting their visual integrity. To investigate the condition and production techniques, one representative polychrome painting was selected for non-destructive testing using X-ray radiography (XRR), infrared reflectography (IRR), and scanning macro X-Ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) imaging. The results revealed information about pigment composition, ink line drawing, and elemental distribution, providing new insights into the visual characteristics and production process from multiple perspectives. This work is of great significance for comprehensive understanding and scientific conservation of Gongshu Hall paintings, and offers valuable references for the detection and study of other wooden polychrome artworks.

Abstract:In 2001, a large number of ivory artifacts were unearthed during the excavation of the Jinsha Site. To prevent water loss, the ivories were preserved by silicone sealing. Short-term water loss experiments showed that silicone sealing effectively reduced water loss in the ivories. Ivory artifacts have been sealed and preserved for more than 20 years. This study aimed to evaluate the long-term effects of silicone sealing on the ivories. The external features, chemical composition, crystal structure, pore structure and moisture characteristics of the silicon-sealed ivories were analyzed using ultra-depth video microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, nitrogen adsorption, low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, dynamic moisture adsorption, thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. The testing results were then compared with those of freshly unearthed Jinsha Site ivories, ivories unearthed from the Sanxingdui site, and modern ivories in terms of appearance, chemical composition, crystal structure, pore structure and moisture characteristics, to comprehensively assess the preservation effect of silicone sealing. The results show that silicone has provided effective protection, as the ivories have no signs of collapse or deformation. The silicon-sealed Jinsha ivories remain primarily composed of hydroxyapatite, with a crystal size of about 28 nm, and the organic matter has largely degraded. The overall composition and crystal size of ivories are similar to those prior to sealing. However, a small amount of silicone, invisible to the naked eye or under optical microscope, were found on both the surface and interior of ivories, with surface contamination being slightly more pronounced. The pore structure consists mainly of mesopores (2-50 nm), along with a few micro-and macropores (<1 000 nm), with an average pore size of about 15 nm. Silicone sealing has not increased the pore size or porosity of the ivories and demonstrates good moisture retention. The average moisture content of the ivories after over 20 years of silicone sealing remains around 38%, indicating that long-term silicone sealing effectively maintains the moisture stability of ivories.

Abstract:The soil-textured layer on the surface of warrior figurines unearthed from Han Yangling Mausoleum is a unique relic feature formed through long-term underground burial of armor and clothing remains, and it’s extremely rare. At present, this soil-textured layer is facing severe deterioration, including loosening, pulverizing and detachment. The studies on its reinforcement and conservation have not yet been publicly reported. To propose practical recommendations for reinforcement, conservation, and restoration of the soil-textured layer of warrior figurines in Han Yangling Mausoleum, three commonly used acrylic polymer reinforcement materials—B72, AC33 and SF-016—were selected for testing. Reinforcement experiments were conducted on simulated soil-textured layers at varying mass fractions. Evaluations were conducted in terms of appearance, air permeability, compressive strength, etc. When 3% SF-016 was applied to a sample, ultra depth-of-field 3D microscopic observation revealed no apparent network cross-linked structure within the interior, and SEM-EDS results confirmed that no additional elements other than carbon were introduced. Overall, the reinforcement effect of 3% SF-016 was found to be the most satisfactory.

Abstract:Assessing the degradation degree of waterlogged wooden cultural relics often presents challenges such as severe sampling damage and lengthy testing processes. To address these problems, this study proposes a comprehensive quasi-nondestructive evaluation method for assessing the degradation degree of waterlogged wooden shipwrecks. Four representative Chinese shipwrecks—Cixi from the Yuan Dynasty, and Wanjiao No.1, Xiaobaijiao No.1, and Changjiangkou No.2 from the Qing Dynasty—were selected as research objects. On-site sampling was conducted using hand-sliced sections and growth cone to collect specimens from the surface and different depths of ship components. The wood anatomical structures of the hand-sliced sections were analyzed to identify tree species and determine their degradation grade. Additionally, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied to the growth cone samples. The lignin-to-carbohydrate (L/C) ratio, derived from the characteristic peak intensities of lignin and polysaccharides, was calculated to compare the polysaccharide composition at different depths within the same sample. The results indicate that the surface degradation of ship components from Cixi, Xiaobaijiao No.1, and Changjiangkou No.2 is mainly moderate, while Wanjiao No.1 exhibits slight to moderate degradation. The anatomical structures of growth cone samples from Cixi and Changjiangkou No.2 at different depths show relatively uniform and slight degradation. There is no significant difference in L/C values among different depths. These findings demonstrate that the proposed quasi-nondestructive approach provides reliable technical support for accurately assessing the degradation degree of waterlogged wooden cultural relics.

Abstract:The city wall of surrounding mountain in Nanjing, characterized by its unique outer masonry and close integration with the inner mountain terrain, represents a typical example of ancient Chinese city walls. Rain infiltration has a significant impact on the wall’s stability, often leading to cracking and partial collapses. To investigate the influence of rainwater infiltration on the stability of the wall of surrounding mountain, this study established a model based on the interfacial interlocking mechanism between the ancient masonry and the adjacent soil mass, employing an improved calculation method derived from Coulomb’s earth pressure theory. Using the Shence Gate section of the Nanjing’s city wall as a case study, the Geo-studio software’s SLOPE/W module was applied to analyze changes in the wall’s stability factor under varying soil moisture conditions. Additionally, a numerical model was developed using ABAQUS software to simulate the displacement, stress, and strain responses of the external masonry under four different water table conditions. The results indicate that the resultant earth pressure, accounting for the interlocking action between the wall and the soil as well as soil’s cohesion, is greater than that predicted by Rankine’s earth pressure theory. The city wall maintains high stability when the soil moisture content within the wall structure remains between 10% and 17%. The horizontal displacement of the outer masonry increases parabolically with rising water levels. Particularly, when the water level reaches 2 meters below the top of the wall, the principal tensile stress at 1 meter above the wall’s base rises sharply, indicating a high risk of tensile cracks in this region. This study provides a scientific basis for the safety evaluation and conservation of the city wall of surrounding mountain in Nanjing.

Abstract:Compared with earthen sites in the arid regions of Northwestern China, those located in the humid environments of Southern China are more vulnerable to moisture-related deterioration, exhibiting distinct differences in disease types, characteristics, and development mechanisms. Using the Archaeological Ruins of Liangzhu City as a case study, this research conducted a year-long investigation across nine selected site locations to document site deterioration. More than ten types of deterioration were identified at Liangzhu, among which cracking, surface weathering, mold growth, and faunal damage were the most common. To explore the mechanisms underlying these deteriorations, correlation analysis using SPSS revealed significant correlations between undercut dimensions and environmental factors, with rain erosion as the primary cause driver. Quantitative analysis using R2V software and CAD further demonstrated that rapid reduction in soil moisture content and excavation-induced stress release, are key factors accelerating crack propagation. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) was introduced to assess the chemical weathering of the site soil, revealing a relatively high degree of chemical weathering in the Carp Mountain soil. Ultimately, eight core coupling pathways governing deterioration development were systematically summarized. This research provides valuable insights for the conservation of heritage sites in humid environments.

Abstract:Traditional ethnic minority costumes feature diverse decorative techniques and rich decorative materials, which often result in complex degradation phenomena and multifactorial deterioration. During the intervening conservation and restoration of a Qing Dynasty Gengma Dai women’s blouse (Museum Dai clothes collection No.166) in Yunnan Provincial Museum, it was found that the blouse’s edge was decorated with straight yarn colored ribbon, obliquely woven silver ribbons, and black satin. These components, composed of both organic and inorganic materials, were assembled through multi-layered inlaying and laminating processes, creating a highly complex decorative structure. Under multiple factors, the various decorative materials exhibited differing degrees and types of damage, with losses in some areas. As a result, it is necessary to use specialized supplementary methods, including targeted embroidery and stitching treatment, in different areas. Using two representative edge decorations from the garment as case studies, this paper discusses restoration strategies for composite-material structures. It integrates advanced scientific techniques with traditional conservation methods, and includes real object study, ethnological field investigation, and literature review to ensure that the restoration decisions are informed by scientific evidence, and ethnic information was maintained to the greatest extent.

Abstract:During the Republic of China period, the country had entered an era of modern bookbinding, when hardcover books became relatively common. Emerging from the technical context of the Industrial Revolution, hardcover binding, referred to as “case binding” in English, emphasized speed and cost-effectiveness, which led to inherent structural weaknesses from its inception. Hardcover books that have survived to this day often exhibit structural problems such as detached covers and separation between the text block and the case, hindering their intended value. Drawing on contemporary Western conservation practices of case-bound volumes, this study took a hardcover dictionary as a case to illustrate a typical treatment process—including cleaning and disassembling, text block repair, case restoration, and reattachment of the case, in order to provide practical guidance and references for the structural repair of hardcover books of the Republic of China period. After the treatment, the dictionary’s historical appearance was largely restored, and its physical structure stabilized, enabling the book to meet the requirements of both academic research and long-term preservation.

Abstract:As an important component of Thangka cultural relics, mounting and frame inlaying materials hold significant value. Among a set of Thangkas depicting Master Tsongkhapa’s Five Visions in the collection of Xizang Museum, two Thangkas exhibited various forms of deterioration in their original mounting materials, including insect damage, losses, cracking, soiling, discoloration, and fading, which seriously affected the integrity of the cultural relics. Based on a detailed condition survey and scientific analysis, this study carried out conservation treatments aimed at preserving the original materials. The process included cleaning, disassembly, dyeing, humidification and flattening, and localized repairs. These interventions restored the Thangkas’ original visual appearance, stabilized their structure, and preserved the integrity of the entire artworks, enabling improved exhibition, storage, and long-term conservation.

Abstract:i>Manjusri, a Chinese Buddhist painting in the collection of the Osaka Fine Arts Merchants’ Association, is an important testimony to the cultural exchange between China and Japan, and holds significant historical and artistic value. Over time, the painting had suffered from a variety of deterioration, including extensive fading, tears, creases and adhesive stains. In order to select the most appropriate restoration and mounting approach, this study conducted scientific analyses. The paper samples were tested and analyzed to understand the physical properties and degradation state of the paper. Based on these findings, restoration materials were selected, and a detailed treatment and mounting plan was formulated. This restoration object was a typical Chinese painting with Japanese mounting. During the restoration and remounting process, the principle of minimal intervention was followed to preserve the authenticity and integrity of the artwork. In the treatment process, the combination of modern analytical methods and traditional restoration and mounting techniques, enabled accurate evaluation of the paper condition, and thus provided a sound scientific basis for restoration decisions, effectively slowing paper deterioration, and maximizing the visual and structural restoration of the artwork. This study could provide a practical reference and theoretical support for the conservation and restoration of similar paper cultural relics.

Abstract:This paper presents a case study of designing and making a packaging box for a bamboo double-lotus seedpod box in the collection of the Palace Museum. Based on a comprehensive examination of the artifact, including its condition, material, shape, function and dimensions, a three-dimensional model was created using computer software, forming the basis for the packaging design. The production of the packaging box followed the traditional royal craftsmanship techniques while integrating modern concepts of cultural relic conservation and restoration. The design incorporated both the outer structural framework and the internal buffer components, resulting in an innovative packaging solution that integrates exhibition and storage functions. This case provides a valuable reference for the packaging design of similar types of cultural relics in the future.

Abstract:This paper reviews the current status and application prospects of radio frequency and microwave non-destructive testing (NDT) methods in the field of cultural relic conservation. Radio frequency and microwave detection have attracted extensive attention due to their good penetration, non-contact and non-destructive natures, low detection power, rapid operation, and suitability for on-site detection. By summarizing relevant research results from both domestic and oversea studies, this paper analyzes specific applications of these techniques in cultural relic evaluation and monitoring, such as radio frequency identification (RFID) in artifact storage management, microwave-based humidity measurement of rock masses, ancient wooden pillars, and walls in cultural heritage sites, as well as the use of ground penetrating radar in archaeological excavations. Furthermore, this paper discusses existing challenges faced, including intelligent data analysis, standardization, technical application, and outlines potential future development directions. The findings aim to provide theoretical support and practical references for the broader application of radio frequency and microwave testing methods in Chinese cultural heritage conservation and archaeological studies.