Abstract:The Shiyu No.2 shipwreck site is located atop coral reefs on the east side of Shiyu in the Xisha Islands, and represents a significant underwater cultural relic within the waters of the Xisha Islands. The site has yielded a variety of porcelain wares including blue and white porcelain, egg-white glazed, white glazed, grayish-green glazed and brownish glazed ones, making it a pivotal window into the exploration of the ancient Maritime Silk Road and the export porcelain trade. Although previous researchers established the relative chronology of the site through typological analysis of blue and white porcelains, the absence of the ship’s structural remains precluded radiocarbon dating. Instead, the thermoluminescence dating method provides an alternative method to determine the absolute chronology of the site. To investigate the thermoluminescence properties and chronology of blue and white porcelains from the site, we conducted tests on 16 porcelain shards using the pre-dose saturation exponential method. The contents of radioactive elements U, Th and ⁴⁰K in the samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). During the dose rate calculation, key parameters including the sample’s latitude and longitude, burial depth, moisture content and contents of radioactive elements were considered. The TESCAN integrated mineral analyzer (TIMA) was utilized for the first time to determine the distribution of quartz grain sizes in the porcelain body, thereby enhancing the accuracy of the dose rate estimation. The thermoluminescence dating results indicate that this batch of blue and white porcelains was fired in a period dating from the Yuan Dynasty to the early Ming Dynasty. Within the limited error range of thermoluminescence, this is consistent with the conclusion drawn from traditional appraisal methods that the site belongs to the Yuan Dynasty. This contributes to revealing the manufacturing techniques, practical uses and possible origins of these artifacts from that historical period. Furthermore, it provides important research clues for understanding the communication routes, trade scale and cultural impact of the blue and white porcelain in maritime trade during this era.

Abstract:The emergence of white porcelain represents a crucial breakthrough in the history of Chinese ceramics, laying a technological foundation for the subsequent prosperity of blue-and-white and painted porcelains. It is widely regarded as the “fourth milestone” in the history of Chinese ceramic science and technology. Therefore, the origination of white porcelain is a pressing issue in the fields of archaeology and archaeometry, which focuses on the remains of the Northern Dynasties and Sui Dynasty from the Xing kiln site excavated in 2012. In this study, inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and thermoelectric ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) were used to analyze the raw materials for early Xing wares from the Fuwulou kiln site in Neiqiu, providing scientific evidence as to the evolution of early porcelain technology at Xing kiln. The results show that the early Xing ware bodies can be divided into two categories based on the trace element pattern, indicating that two kinds of raw materials were used for making porcelain. It further shows that the Xing potters intentionally selected a higher-quality raw material distinct from that of celadon for the production of new wares. The early white porcelain contains generally lower levels of trace elements such as V, Cr, Ni, Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf, which are closely related to the impurities of zircon and rutile. The strontium (Sr) isotopic mixing pattern analysis demonstrates that the glaze-making for early Xing ware did not generally follow the recipe of wood ash mixed with body clay, but rather that it was mixed with other glaze-making clays. Furthermore, there are discrepancies in strontium isotopic compositions between the early white porcelain and celadon glaze, suggesting that Xing potters attempted to improve the whiteness by modifying the glaze-making technology. These findings scientifically reveal the raw material characteristics and sources of early Xing wares and provide valuable insights into the origination of white porcelain.

Abstract:The stability of corrosion products on iron artifacts has significant effects on the preservation and conservation of the objects. This is a crucial factor in evaluating the overall conservation state of iron objects. The protective ability index (PAI), which primarily considers the ratio of stable phase to unstable phases, is applied to assess the protective ability of the corrosion layer and the corrosion tendency of iron objects. Recently, Raman spectrometry has been more often used as a semi-quantitative approach for quantifying various components of iron corrosion, making it a valuable tool for calculating the PAI value. In this study, Raman spectrometry, combined with macro X-ray florescence imaging and other techniques, was applied to quantify the composition of corrosion products on an iron bar excavated from the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck. Subsequently, the PAI values were calculated. The results indicate that the corrosion products predominantly comprise four types:α-FeOOH, γ-FeOOH, β-FeOOH and Fe₃O₄. These products present distinct distribution patterns in the inner and outer layers of the object. The PAI values ranged primarily from 1 to 10, with the lowest recorded at 0.34 and highest at 20.38. Notably, the PAI values for corrosion in outer layer are higher than those in the inner layer, suggesting greater stability in the outer rust. Corrosion present at the stripping surface, with a PAI value below 1, is indicative of significant instability. Similarly, instances of unstable corrosion were observed within the inner layer, as evidenced by a PAI value of 0.73. The application of PAI values in assessing iron corrosion provides a quantitative and reliable method for diagnosing the conservation state of iron objects.

Abstract:Huangkuangchang site in Dali, Yunnan Province is a large lead and silver production site of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In previous studies, the mining age and total amount of silver tax at the site have been discussed, but further research is needed on the smelting technology used. This study reconstructed the lead and silver smelting technology of Huangkuangchang site by analyzing the smelting slags at four locations of this site. The results show that the slags from the various locations at Huangkuangchang site can be categorized into four groups—A, B, C and D, based on the differences in their morphological characteristics, major and trace elements, rare-earth element partition curves, and lead isotopic ratios. A, B and C slags were smelted using roasting-smelting, while the D slag was smelted using the iron reduction process. The lead isotopic analysis results show similar lead isotopic signatures for the ores corresponding to B and C slags, while the D slag has significantly higher lead isotope ratios. The analysis results of rare earth elements show that δEu of the B slag is negatively anomalous, while those of the other groups are slightly positively anomalous. For the A slag, one piece contains highly radioactive lead but the rest are similar to B and C slags, and the trace element content is more discrete while the distribution range is much larger than those of other groups, showing a more diversified source of silver-lead minerals. In summary, workers at Huangkuangchang site may have used a variety of processes for smelting, and lead minerals used may have come from a variety of different deposits, suggesting that the site underwent a number of changes in production techniques and resources over its long production period.

Abstract:Scientific cognition of paper relics is the key to the conservation of this kind of precious cultural heritage. In this study, four widely used traditional Chinese handmade papers, including bamboo paper, hemp paper, mulberry paper and kozo paper, were analyzed using pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). The results show that a higher content of phenolic compounds were detected in bamboo paper, macromolecular triterpenoids such as β-amyrin, α-amyrin and stigmastan-3,5-diene were discovered in mulberry paper and kozo paper, but these special compounds were not found in hemp paper. These pyrolysis products can be used to distinguish hemp paper, bamboo paper and bark fiber papers (mulberry paper and kozo paper). The methods and results were applied in the scientific cognition of a pair of Qing Dynasty waxed-paper couplets:1) to confirm that the fiber raw material for the waxed paper was a mixture of mulberry and straw fibers; 2) to detect a large amount of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols which indicated that the presence of beeswax; 3) to detect pyrrole substances which proved that animal glue was used as the cementing material for mounting; 4) to detect biological alkali substances, which indicated the use of vegetable dyes. The study shows that the Py-GC/MS method could not only determine the paper fiber source of traditional Chinese paper relics, but also identify the waxing, cementing and dyeing information on paper relics. The type of bark paper fiber was identified in combination with the traditional Herzberg staining method. This information provides a scientific basis for the conservation and restoration of paper relics. Moreover, this study provides new ideas for the scientific cognition of paper relics.

Abstract:Organic matrix components of modern oil paintings are complex and difficult to identify, and their analysis and identification is one of the difficulties in today’s scientific and technological research on the conservation of cultural relics. The use of micro-destructive analysis methods to investigate the structure, materials and techniques for complex oil painting matrices can elucidate the nature and condition of specific layers of painting. These physicochemical findings are crucial for conservation professionals to make restoration decisions as to the correct handling and concern the future state of restored painting, and thus have become a focus of attention for many researchers. In this paper, FT-IR, Py-GC/MS and THM-Py-GC/MS micro-destructive techniques were used to analyze the scientific and technological characteristics of an oil painting, Autumn on the Dnieper River, in the collection of the National Museum of China. It was found that the combination of these micro-destructive analysis techniques could effectively identify the binding media used for the oil painting and the type of additives present therein to maximally, accurately and integrally extract the information contained in the sample. The results show that the organic cementing materials for the oil painting are polyvinyl acetate materials and linseed oil, while dibutyl phthalate was used as a plasticizer in the polyvinyl acetate materials. The absence of varnish resin-like components in the pyrolysis products suggests that the glossy layer on the lower part of the painting is not the layer of varnish that the author intended to put on. In addition, beeswax was added to some areas of the painting as a modifying material that serves to increase pigment consistency and plasticity, and also to diminish gloss.

Abstract:Marble is one of the main materials used for ancient stone carvings and constructions. Many black crusts have appeared on the surface of marble relics during the period of industrial development. These not only reduce the artistic value seriously, but also lead to further deterioration through continuous absorption of various pollutants and more radiation heat. Therefore, cleaning measures are urgently needed. Based on the previous studies on marble carvings and black crusts in Beijing area, the ammonium carbonate method, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid method and mechanical method were used to carry out cleaning trials for conparison. Furthermore, on-site tests were applied to six typical stone carvings at different places in Beijing to optimize the whole process. Instruments including a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, a colorimeter and a microscope were used to evaluate the effects before and after cleaning. The contents of soluble salts in carvings were analyzed using ion chromatography. The results show that the ammonium carbonate method had the best cleaning effect on the black crusts on marble stone relics. A more efficient and reasonable cleaning scheme was thus obtained, which is helpful to the conservation of stone relics.

Abstract:A large number of Xinlongwa and Hongshan jades have been unearthed or collected in Bairin Right Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, but there have been few systematic material studies. In our study, portable instruments such as Raman and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometers were used to conduct non-destructive testing and analysis on 74 Xinglongwa and Hongshan jades from this area. After qualitative and quantitative analyses, most jades in this batch were identified as nephrite, while the others were identified as dickite, calcite, serpentine, mica and fluorite. The nephrite jades can be divided into three groups according to the peak counts of XRF spectra:those of Xinglongwa period are concentrated in Groups B (light green) and C (light yellow), and those of Hongshan period are concentrated in Groups A (dark green) and B (light green). The further studies were focused on the provenance information of those jades with the help of the geologic mineralogical method. It can be inferred that the nephrite articles as well as a few articles made of other materials were sourced from Xiuyan area of Liaoning Province, while most of other materials were obtained nearby.

Abstract:Based on the rammed earth materials for different types of architecture, such as city walls, high-platform foundations, building foundations and wells, found at Zhengzhou Shang City and Zhengzhou Xiaoshuangqiao sites, a comprehensive analysis was conducted using a series of methods including microscopic observation, Raman spectrometry, determination of loss on ignition and magnetic susceptibility, etc., in combination with the comparison of morphological characteristics. This analysis revealed the mineral composition and physical properties of various types of rammed earth materials of the Shang Dynasty in Zhengzhou area. Furthermore, through the soil micro-morphological analysis to distinguish the microscopic structure and texture of rammed earth, the phenomenon of ramming behavior transforming the native soil environment was recognized, and the human-environment relationship during the construction and utilization of rammed earth was explored.

Abstract:The excavation of agricultural tools, animal bones, crop remains and human bones from the Heishui State Han tombs provides important evidence for understanding the socio-economic and agricultural development of Zhangye region in Hexi Corridor during the Han-Jin period. Based on the identification results of animal bones and crop remains, and carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis results of human bone collagen, the food structure and subsistence patterns of the population in Heishui State during the Han-Jin period can be revealed. The excavated crops include millet, broomcorn millet and rice, and the accompanying burial animals consist of chickens, pigs, sheep, cattle, dogs and horses. The stable carbon isotopes of collagen from human bones mainly exhibit a mixed signal of C₃ and C₄ plants with some showing only a C₃ or C₄ signal. Additionally, stable nitrogen isotope values are relatively higher compared to those of domestic herbivores such as cattle and sheep. Based on comprehensive research, it is evident that during the Han-Jin period, a mixed agricultural mode of wheat, millet, and beans was developed in Hexi Corridor, indicating diverse food sources of the ancient people in Heishui State during the Han Dynasties. Additionally, animal husbandry thrived in Hexi Corridor at that time, providing abundant meat resources for consumption by the population and resulting in a higher intake of protein.

Abstract:Zuojiashan site is located 500 m southwest of Gaojiatun Village in Nong’an County, Jilin Province. In 2015, due to river erosion, the Frontier Archaeology Research Center of Jilin University and other units carried out salvage archaeological excavations, and unearthed the bones of animals such as pigs, dogs, sheep and horses, etc. Through the identification and study of the unearthed animal remains, it was found that during the Neolithic Age, Zuojiashan site was active in summer and autumn, and that the livelihood mode of ancestors was mainly hunting, fishing and gathering, in addition to raising a small number of domestic animals. During the Liao and Jin Dynasties, the area was known as “Huanglongfu”. As a result of the analysis of unearthed animal remains from burials, it was assumed that they were closely related to the “burnt rice sacrifice” and other funeral customs of ethnic minorities, which provides important evidence for the cultural exchanges and integration between ethnic minorities in northern China of the Liao and Jin periods. The buried animal species also suggest that, to a certain extent, the livelihood mode of people living in the Yitong River Basin at the time was a combination of agriculture and animal husbandry accompanied by a small amount of fishing and hunting activities.

Abstract:The shipwreck in Chaotang River of Cixi is the first ancient shipwreck discovered and scientifically excavated in this area. Its hull construction is generally intact and has 10 existing compartment wall panels. The ¹⁴C dating revealed that the shipwreck belonged to the Yuan Dynasty (1271 AD-1368 AD). To investigate and analyze the shipwreck’s disease situation, samples were collected from 70 monitoring points on the hull, and testing was conducted from various perspectives, including tree types, chemical composition of wood, sulfur and iron element contents and microbial disease types. The results show that the wood samples of the shipwreck in Chaotang River of Cixi were in a water-saturated state due to a long-term burial environment in the inland waterway, the maximum moisture contents were mainly between 185%-400%, some areas exhibited the phenomena of discoloration, deformation, twisting and cracking, and the chemical composition of wood exhibited the characteristics of low cellulose and high ash. It is in a state of moderate corrosion and thus requires immediate hull conservation work such as desalination and filling reinforcement.

Abstract:During the Spring and Autumn Period, the surface decoration technology for bronzes developed rapidly, with various decoration methods and complex patterns. Color fillers in order to highlight the decorative effects of surface patterns on bronzes are common. However, there are few scientific analyses on the color filler materials for bronzes—the relevant studies are mostly focused on their artistic value and cultural significance. The identification of white fillers is still rare. Zaoshulin Cemetery in Suizhou, Hubei Province is a high-level noble cemetery dating to the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BCE-476 BCE), from which a large number of bronzes have been excavated. In this study, the white filling material in the decorated surface of bronzes from the cemetery was analyzed using FTIR, SEM-EDS, XRD and Py-GC/MS. It was concluded that the main component is a mixture of quartz and an unknown clay mineral. The study provides new evidence for the technique of filling colors on the surface decoration of bronzes in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770 BCE-256 BCE). This investigation also serves as a reference for other related research.

Abstract:From thousands of years of architectural practice in China, many creations with Chinese characteristics have been found, one of which is the traditional Chinese organic-inorganic mortar represented by the sticky rice-lime mortar. This article reviews the progress of relevant studies since 2007, including the followings:innovative progress of chemical detection and ELISA analytical technique on organic residuals from traditional mortar; test results and cause analysis of 1149 mortar samples from 252 ancient architectural sites in China; experimental verification of the curing mechanism of traditional cementing materials such as sticky rice-lime mortar and tung oil mortar; influences of the research achievement of sticky rice-lime mortar and its status in the history of world composite materials; recent new findings of organic additives in the Neolithic Age Baihuimian (white lime layer) and tracing of its relevant origin; study of the modified traditional sticky rice-lime mortar and its applications in cultural relics conservation projects; etc. The series of exploratory research not only provides materials and technologies for traditional architectural conservation, but also presents vivid cases for the promotion of Chinese civilization.

Abstract:Since the Neolithic Age, lime mortar has been widely used as construction and decoration materials for buildings, such as cementing materials for brick wall gaps, surfaces for house sites, and ground layers for murals. The manufacture of lime mortar is directly related to the construction, repair and mural painting of buildings, which means lime mortar is an important type of dating material for the study of ancient buildings. Due to the production process, raw materials and preservation state, the composition of lime mortar is complex, because the inorganic components may contain interfering components generated in other ages, and the large organic remains such as animal and plant fibers could hardly be preserved. Thus, it is difficult to accurately determine the carbon age of lime mortar. This study reviews the characterization and pretreatment methods for radiocarbon dating-used lime mortar, as well as recent research achievements concerning the formation mechanisms of inorganic components, and summarizes the progress and shortcomings. The study also proposes possible future research directions, such as computer simulation of the influence of interfering components and developing organic residue dating methods.

Abstract:Jade artifacts played a fundamental role in the three major ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica, serving multiple purposes including sacrifice, ritual and decoration. Through the incorporation of scientific and technological archaeological perspectives, alongside optical and spectroscopic methods (such as microscopy, infrared spectrometry and Raman spectrometry), it was firstly determined that at least 20 types of jade materials were used in Mesoamerica, with jadeite as the main material. Then the characteristics of material utilization by Mesoamerican ancestors were analyzed and it is suggested:in terms of jade production, Mayans in the Classic Period displayed efficient and consummate techniques in the carving, drilling, grinding, polishing and standardized manufacturing of jadeite; in terms of gender, high-ranking male aristocrats used a large quantity of jade artifacts, with green jadeite being the most prestigious, whereas female aristocrats seldom possessed jadeite artifacts but used jade artifacts with various colors and types; in terms of hierarchy, aristocrats often used a lot of symbolic jade artifacts, and commoners used a single piece of jade tool; in terms of diachronicity, influenced by various factors such as resources and cultures, etc. in ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica, the utilization of jadeite of Aztecs decreased. This paper enriches the understanding of the diverse and distinctive history of jade artifact development and jade culture in Mesoamerica.

Abstract:The utilization of plant resources by the ancestors in the Neolithic Age has always been a hot issue in academic research. Canarium is an important plant resource in Guangxi, but there is a lack of systematic research on Canarium. This paper systematically reviews the Canarium remains found at home and abroad and research methods for them, and further emphasizes the importance of broadening identification methods for Canariumremains research. By combing the Canarium remains and research methods for them, this paper not only helps to understand the utilization of Canarium plants by the ancestors in Guangxi during the Neolithic Age, but also provides important information for interpreting the domestication history and environmental history of Canariumplants in this region.

Abstract:Archaeometric research in China is blooming. So far, however, no systematic review on its path of development has been made, and there is a lack of in-depth discussion of its features and methodology at this stage. In this paper, the paths of development of archaeometric research at home and abroad are compared in order to reveal the uniqueness of occurrence and development of archaeometric research in China. Based on the summary of the development of the National Symposium on Archaeometry in China as the mainline, eight opinions on extracting the contemporary archaeometric features in China are proposed. Afterwards, the methodology or paradigms of archaeometric research are discussed to understand the role the science and technology plays in archaeometry. Lastly, six aspects on how to carry out archaeometric research well in China in the future are suggested.