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作者简介:

张正模(1982—),男,副研究员,研究方向为石窟寺及土遗址赋存环境监测及预防性保护,E-mail:jiyicanpian@126.com

通讯作者:

胡塔峰(1973—),男,副研究员,研究方向为室内空气质量,E-mail:hutf@ieecas.cn

中图分类号:K879.21

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1005-1538(2024)02-0085-08

DOI:10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20220902692

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目录contents

    摘要

    大气颗粒物是潜在威胁遗址与文物的一种大气污染物,颗粒物沉降或吸附后覆盖文物表面细节,降低其审美价值,并带来进一步的物理或化学侵蚀。通过分析莫高窟开放洞窟(16窟、257窟)、非开放洞窟(320洞窟)和窟外大气中各粒径颗粒物(总悬浮颗粒物TSP、粗颗粒物PM10和细颗粒物PM2.5)背景和典型沙尘天气质量浓度及其碳组分和水溶性无机离子组分含量,获得文物保存环境中大气颗粒物的质量浓度及化学组成。各观测季节内,非沙尘天气窟内TSP质量浓度介于48.4~60.0μg/m3,PM10质量浓度介于13.3~61.3μg/m3,PM2.5质量浓度介于9.9~59.2 μg/m3。洞窟是否向公众开放对窟内颗粒物浓度水平和组成的影响不显著,开放和非开放洞窟颗粒物质量浓度的I/O比值多小于1,显示窟内颗粒物主要源于室外。窟内颗粒物化学组成中,地壳源矿物尘多占据主导地位,在沙尘频发的春季占比介于53.0%至80.7%之间,冬季占比介于17.1%~44.0%。其他化学组分中,细颗粒PM2.5中碳组分和总水溶性无机离子含量占比明显高于TSP和PM10。冬季窟内PM2.5质量浓度低于春季,但碳组分和无机离子浓度值和含量占比均高于春季(除去春季16洞窟),冬季碳组分和无机离子含量占比高达60%,其中酸性组分含量占比和可达30%。对莫高窟大气颗粒物的控制不能忽视细颗粒浓度及其化学组成的潜在危害。

    Abstract

    The atmospheric particulate matter is a kind atmospheric pollutant that threatens heritage sites and cultural relics. The deposition or adsorption of the particulate matter can cover the surface details of cultural relics, reducing the aesthetic value and causing further physical or chemical damages. With the goal of obtaining the chemical composition of the atmospheric particulate matter in a cultural heritage preservation environment, the mass concentration and chemical composition of TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 in open caves (Cave 16 and Cave 257), a non-open cave (Cave 320) and outside were analyzed. In each observation season, the mass concentration of TSP ranged from 48.4 μg/m3 to 60.0 μg/m3, that of PM10 ranged from 13.3 μg/m3 to 61.3 μg/m3, and that of PM2.5 ranged from 9.9 μg/m3 to 59.2 μg/m3. Whether or not the cave was open to the public had no significant effect on the concentration level and composition of the particulate matter in the cave, and the average I/O ratio of particulate mass concentration was mostly less than 1 in all caves, indicating that the particulate matter in caves mainly came from outdoor infiltration. Crust-derived mineral dust dominated the chemical composition of particles in all caves, accounting from 53.0% to 80.7% in spring and between 17.1% and 44.0% in winter. For other chemical components, the proportion of carbon and total water-soluble inorganic ions in fine particles was significantly higher than that in coarse ones. In winter, although the mass concentration of PM2.5 inside caves was relatively lower, the concentration and proportion of carbon and inorganic ions were higher than those in spring. The content percentage of carbon components and water-soluble inorganic ions was up to 60%. For the pollution control of the atmospheric particulate matter in Mogao Grottoes, attention should be paid to the hazards of fine particles and their chemical compositions.

  • 0 引言

  • 遗址是记录人类文明进程的信息载体,具有不可再生和不可移动的属性。物质文化遗产保护和修复的一种典型模式是在考古遗址现场营建遗址博物馆,展示文物在所处历史时期的原始面貌。遗址博物馆室内的空气质量是影响遗址和文物长久保存的重要因素之一[1]。其中,因自然渗入和人为活动带入博物馆室内空气中的颗粒物与文物的侵蚀密切相关。颗粒物沉降后会覆盖文物的细节,并在清洁过程中进一步导致文物表面的机械磨损[2]。颗粒物中的一些活性组分,如硝酸盐、硫酸盐、铵盐和有机酸,也会引发或加剧对表面材料和结构的腐蚀[1-2]。钙质石材的风化实验显示,孔隙中可溶性盐结晶产生的应力会导致石材破损[3]

  • 被誉为“世界上最长的文化遗产线路”的古丝绸之路,是我国对世界影响最为长久和深远的历史遗迹。河西走廊历代均为丝绸之路的咽喉要道,现存石窟寺群超过50座,大多位于干旱半干旱地区,昼夜温差大且沙尘暴频发[4]。莫高窟,地处我国库姆塔格沙漠和柴达木沙漠之间,其洞窟开凿于大泉河边的砂岩崖壁(图1),开凿时间跨度长达千年,洞窟内的壁画、彩塑等文物包含了丰富的历史、政治、经济和艺术等社会生活多方面的珍贵形象资料。

  • 石窟基于山崖岩体陡坡开凿,无论是文物本体,还是作为文物的载体或环境介质,石窟均属于石质文物,其材质包括含钙质砂岩、黏土地仗、无机矿物颜料和少量有机颜料等。因此,除文物及其载体自身材质的不兼容性外,影响文物长久保存的赋存环境主要包括其地质环境、水环境、空气环境和社会环境,以及各环境因素的协同作用等[2]。与颗粒物相关的病害主要包括颜料酥粉、壁画起翘、脱落、变色和褪色,及降尘对室内文物表面的污损和化学侵蚀[4]

  • 评估空气污染物对历史遗迹的潜在危害时,由室外渗入和室内常规活动导致的室内空气污染物浓度称之为背景浓度水平[5-7]。全面了解室内颗粒物背景浓度水平,对于博物馆工作人员设计修复方法、调整展示策略和周边环境政策非常重要。本研究列举了莫高窟2006年、2016~2017年典型洞窟内外各粒级大气颗粒物(总悬浮颗粒物TSP、粗颗粒物PM10和细颗粒物PM2.5)的背景浓度水平,探讨颗粒物质量浓度随气象条件和通风条件的变化特征,及颗粒物中关键化学组分对文物的潜在影响。

  • 图1 莫高窟采样点和典型洞窟的横截面

  • Fig.1 Mogao Grottoes sampling sites and cross section of a typical Mogao cave

  • 1 样品和方法

  • 1.1 采样点设置

  • 莫高窟现存洞窟492座,其中40座洞窟全年对游客交替开放,另有30座洞窟仅旅游旺季开放。自2014年,每日游客人数限制在6 000人。自2017年,每日游客限制人数增至18 000人。目前,莫高窟内大部分洞窟配有铝合金百叶门阻隔室外环境。本研究室内采样点位于莫高窟北侧的三个洞窟(如图1a,其中16洞窟位于一层,距九层楼625 m;320和257洞窟位于第二层,分别距九层楼456 m和146 m),16洞窟和257洞窟对公众开放,320洞窟未对公众开放。16洞窟体积超过1 000 m3,被三层楼的建筑木墙、窗户和入口门所保护。257洞窟和320洞窟体积分别约为600 m3和300 m3,洞窟入口处安装铝制百叶门作保护(图1b),三座洞窟均未安装机械通风装置。

  • 1.2 样品采集

  • 2006和2016~2017年两个采样期内采集颗粒物的样品类型与数量、采样位置和日期等信息列于表1。春季采样期,2006年有3个采样日出现沙尘天气。室内采样点位于每个采样洞窟内地面靠近中心位置,室外采样点距16洞窟入口处约5 m。借助便携式大气气溶胶采样器Mini-Vol(Airmetrics,Springfield,OR,USA)将TSP、PM10和PM2.5样品采集至直径47 mm的石英纤维滤膜(Whatman,Clifton,NJ,USA)上,采样流速5 L/min,采样时间24 h,每次采样前使用流量计(DryCal Defender 510H, Brandt Instruments, LA, USA)校准流量。石英纤维滤膜采样前在900℃下预热3 h以去除残留碳。采样结束后,滤膜置于塑料片夹内,密封后保存在4℃的冰箱中。

  • 表1 2006年和2016~2017年采样时间段和颗粒物样品信息

  • Table1 Sampling information of 2006 and 2016~2017 periods

  • 1.3 样品分析

  • 滤膜在温度为20~23℃、相对湿度为35%~45%的条件下平衡24 h,使用灵敏度为±1 μg的微电子分析天平(Model MC5,Sartorius,Göttingen,Germany),称量每张滤膜的重量。计算石英纤维滤膜在采样前后各三次称量的平均重量差(每两次称量差值小于0.015 μg),重量法获得TSP、PM10和PM2.5质量浓度[8-9]。切割两份1/4石英滤膜分别用于水溶性无机离子和元素组成分析。水溶性无机离子浓度借助离子色谱仪(Model DX600, Dionex Inc., Sunnyvale, CA, USA)测量[8],以AS14分析柱获得6种阴离子(F-、Cl-、Br-、NO-2、NO-3和SO2-4),以CS12A分析柱获得5种阳离子(NH+4、K+、Na+、Mg2+和Ca2+)的质量浓度。其中,F-、Cl-、Br-和NO-2检出限为0.5 μg/L,NO-3和SO2-4检出限为15 μg/L,NH+4、K+、Na+、Mg2+和Ca2+检出限分别为0.26、0.65、0.9、0.42和0.65 μg/L。检测每10个样品后,分析一组标样和随机重复样,以控制仪器精度和保障分析数据质量。使用ED-XRF(Epsilon 5,PANalytical B. V.,Netherlands)测定石英滤膜上颗粒物中13种元素(K、Ca、Ti、Cr、Mn、Fe、Ni、Zn、As、Br、Mo、Cd和Pb)的质量浓度。按照美国沙漠所制定的标准程序确保数据质量,每个样品分析30 min,依据X射线计数与光子能量谱,以峰值能量匹配元素定性,以峰面积定量元素浓度[10-11]。打孔器切取0.5 cm2石英滤膜,借助热-光碳分析仪(DRI Model2001, Atmoslytic Inc., Calabasas, CA, USA),采用IMPROVE A协议测定有机碳(OC)与元素碳(EC)含量[9],OC和EC检出限低于1 μg/m3。每天样品测试前、后,须检测CH4/CO2标准气体完成校准,两次标准气体检测的总碳(TC)、OC和EC偏差均须在5%以内。检测每10个样品后,随机选择一个样品复检,复检TC偏差须在5%以内,OC、EC偏差须在10%以内[8-9]

  • 2 结果和讨论

  • 2.1 颗粒物质量浓度

  • 2.1.1 洞窟室内外颗粒物背景浓度水平

  • 春季和冬季采样期间窟内外各粒径颗粒物(TSP、PM10和PM2.5)背景浓度水平如表2所示,本文中除特殊说明外,颗粒物质量浓度均表示为均值上标准偏差。非沙尘时期,春季室外日均TSP质量浓度为122.6±85.4 μg/m3,2016年,PM10质量浓度均值为106.8±60.7 μg/m3,PM2.5质量浓度均值为28.0±25.2 μg/m3。在气象条件更稳定的冬季(2017年),室外PM10的质量浓度可低至22.2±2.7 μg/m3;PM2.5的质量浓度可低至12.5±2.6 μg/m3。本研究室外TSP观测值显著低于2001~2004年敦煌地区的TSP年均质量浓度(374.5 μg/m3)、1996~2001年莫高窟(307.7 μg/m3)和敦煌市郊某村庄(349.4 μg/m3)的观测记录[12-13]

  • 春季开放洞窟内PM10和PM2.5的质量浓度分别为61.3 μg/m3和59.2 μg/m3;非开放洞窟内PM10和PM2.5的质量浓度分别为53.6 μg/m3和11.5 μg/m3。冬季窟内颗粒物浓度水平低于春季,开放洞窟内PM10和PM2.5的质量浓度分别是19.4 μg/m3和10.1 μg/m3;非开放洞窟内PM10和PM2.5的质量浓度分别是13.3 μg/m3和9.9 μg/m3。除2016年春季开放洞窟PM2.5,采样期间各粒径颗粒物质量浓度在开放和非开放洞窟差异均不显著。

  • 美国暖气和空调工程师学会(ASHRAE)推荐博物馆保存一般收藏品的浓度限值为1~10 μg/m3[14],本研究观测到洞窟内PM2.5浓度水平多高于此限值。尤其2016年佛诞节时游客剧增,16窟PM2.5质量浓度记录到观测期间的最高值(59.2 μg/m3),代表了室内人员活动影响的极大值。莫高窟大部分洞窟仅由铝合金百叶门作为防护,室外颗粒物易渗入洞窟内。尽管游客活动也对室内颗粒物存在一定贡献[15-17],但除个别事件(2016年春季佛诞日开放洞窟PM2.5的I/O=2.11)外,各粒级颗粒物质量浓度的I/O比值均小于1,即窟内颗粒物主要源于室外渗入。

  • 表2 各粒径颗粒物的背景浓度水平和春季沙尘天气窟内外TSP质量浓度

  • Table2 Background levels of size-differentiated particulate matters at Mogao Grottoes during respective sampling periods in spring (including sand storm days) and winter

  • 注:a采样期内仅获得一组有效数据。

  • 2.1.2 典型沙尘天气下洞窟室内外颗粒物浓度差异

  • 莫高窟位于河西走廊西端,春季沙尘暴和浮尘事件频发,本研究在2006年5月1日至5月6日的一次沙尘天气期间,观测到室外TSP日均质量浓度高达1 952.0±3 300.6 μg/m3(表2)。对比背景浓度水平,沙尘天气期间室外、开放和非开放洞窟窟内TSP质量浓度均显著增加,但在开放(474.7 μg/m3)和非开放(378.7 μg/m3)窟内浓度差异不显著。较早期的观测也显示,敦煌地区春季TSP均值2001年为317 μg/m3,2002年为307 μg/m3,无沙尘时TSP均值为196 μg/m3,沙尘暴期间TSP质量浓度最高达1 095 μg/m3[18]。莫高窟窟区TSP浓度最高值(923.5 μg/m3)出现在2001年春季沙尘暴期间[13]

  • 2.2 颗粒物化学组成

  • 2.2.1 非沙尘天气洞窟室内外颗粒物化学组成

  • 基于颗粒物水溶性无机离子、碳组分和元素组成分析的化学成分数据,并与称重获得的质量浓度进行对比,重建气溶胶质量[19],获得莫高窟大气颗粒物的主要物质组成包括:碳组分(OC和EC)、水溶性无机离子(SO2-4、NO-3和NH+4等)、地壳源矿物尘(geological materials,GM)及未定义组分(others)。未定义组分在所有样品质量浓度中占比均小于25.2%。其中,地壳源矿物尘的质量浓度以铁元素质量浓度估算[8],计算式为:

  • CGM= (1/0.035) ×CFe

  • 式中:CGM为地壳源矿物尘的质量浓度;CFe为Fe元素的质量浓度,0.035为文献报道中亚洲沙尘和我国黄土中Fe元素的典型质量浓度。非沙尘期窟内外颗粒物化学组分的浓度水平如图2,各组分占颗粒物质量浓度的比例列于表3至表5。各窟内地壳源矿物尘多占据统治地位,春季占比介于53.0%至80.7%,冬季占比介于17.1%至44.0%。Shen等[18]在敦煌的观测研究也显示,地壳源矿物组分占颗粒物质量的70%左右。地壳源矿物尘沉降后会覆盖文物表面细节,并对窟内壁画和雕塑等文物的表面具有潜在的磨蚀危害。大气颗粒物中的碳组分包括有机碳OC和元素碳EC。各粒级大气颗粒物化学组成中,OC浓度值在开放、非开放洞窟和窟外的差异均不显著,最高浓度值6.6 μg/m3和最高占比20.2%分别出现在春季窟外TSP和冬季非开放洞窟PM2.5中。春冬季窟内外PM2.5化学组成中,OC浓度值及占比季节性差异均不显著。PM10化学组成中,开放洞窟中浓度值季节性差异显著,春季浓度值为3.0 μg/m3,而冬季浓度值仅为0.5 μg/m3,非开放洞窟中OC浓度的季节性差异不显著。OC对于壁画等文物的影响一方面表现在其包含的各种有机酸,如甲酸、乙酸等[20]直接参与化学侵蚀。另一方面,颗粒态OC沉降于壁画及塑像表面,其中可被微生物利用的碳源会成为微生物病害的诱因之一[21-22]。各季节各粒级大气颗粒物中EC浓度值(最高0.9 μg/m3)及其占比在开放、非开放洞窟和窟外均较低,但冬季占比显著高于春季。EC会在博物馆的垂直表面沉积,覆盖雕像和壁画的细节,降低其审美价值。EC对于文物等产生可察觉的污损时间最短为1年,即使低浓度EC沉降累积在文物表面,仍可造成显著的脏污损害[223-24]

  • 图2 各粒径颗粒物质量浓度、碳组分和水溶性离子浓度

  • Fig.2 Mass concentrations, carbon components and water-soluble ion concentrations of size-differentiated particulate matters at Mogao Grottoes during respective sampling periods in spring and winter

  • 表3 2006年春季窟内外TSP质量浓度及其化学组分占比

  • Table3 Mass concentrations of TSP at Mogao Grottoes in the2006 spring sampling period and percentages of the chemical components

  • 注:nd指未检出。

  • 表4 2016年春季窟内外PM2.5和PM10质量浓度及其化学组分占比

  • Table4 Mass concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 at Mogao Grottoes in the2016 spring sampling period and percentages of the chemical components

  • 注:a仅一个有效数据;nd指未检出。

  • 春季窟内颗粒物中总水溶性无机离子占比较冬季低,但在PM10和PM2.5中最高占比仍达到19.5%和25.3%。冬季窟内颗粒物中总水溶性无机离子在PM10和PM2.5中最高占比分别为37.9%和54.0%。冬季,酸性组分(SO2-4和NO-3)在总水溶性无机离子中占统治地位,尤其在16洞窟PM2.5中,其总无机离子和酸性组分占比分别达54.0%和39.6%。杨小菊等[25]对莫高窟大气颗粒物中水溶性离子的观测显示,冬季开放洞窟16内PM2.5中总水溶性无机离子(28.5%)和酸性组分(18.4%)含量占比高于夏季和秋季,此结果尽管低于本研究的观测值,但也显示了水溶性无机组分的较高水平。

  • 洞窟颗粒物中占比较高的无机离子可沉积在雕像和壁画表面,相对湿度升高时,SO2-4和NO-3溶解在文物等表面形成酸性环境,对文物材料形成酸蚀威胁[26-27]。可溶盐颗粒在湿气中溶解形成无机离子,渗入疏松多孔材料表面。随温湿度波动,可溶性盐的溶解和重结晶过程进而导致物理风化。

  • 表5 2017年冬季窟内外PM2.5和PM10质量浓度及其化学组分占比

  • Table5 Mass concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 at Mogao Grottoes in the2017 winter sampling period and percentages of the chemical conponents

  • 注:nd指未检出。

  • 对比颗粒物各化学组分的含量及其占比,可观察到细颗粒(PM2.5)中碳组分和总水溶性无机离子占比高于粗颗粒(PM10和TSP),尤其在冬季。尽管冬季窟内PM2.5质量浓度低于春季,但碳组分和无机离子绝对浓度值和占比均高于春季(除去春季佛诞日16洞窟),冬季碳组分和无机离子含量占比高达60%,其中酸性组分含量占比可达30%,说明莫高窟的颗粒物污染控制不能忽视细颗粒的危害。

  • 2.2.2 典型沙尘天气下洞窟室内外颗粒物化学组成

  • 春季沙尘天气窟内外TSP化学组分占比结果见图2和表3。同非沙尘天气,地壳源矿物尘GM在沙尘天气窟内外TSP中占据绝对地位,尤其是室外,占比高达77.4%。其次占比较高的为OC和Ca2+,且在窟外、开放和非开放窟浓度值和占比差异均不显著。本研究Ca2+在春季窟内外TSP和开放洞窟PM10中均占比最高,在冬季显著降低,与2014年莫高窟观测值一致[25],显示了春季沙尘暴的粉尘输入影响[28],暗示了粉尘中碳酸钙、硫酸钙等的存在[25]

  • 3 结论

  • 非沙尘时期,冬季窟内颗粒物浓度水平低于春季。沙尘天气室外、开放和非开放洞窟窟内TSP质量浓度均显著增加,但在开放和非开放窟内浓度差异不大。除2016年春季佛诞日开放洞窟PM2.5,其他洞窟颗粒物质量浓度的I/O比值均小于1,洞窟内颗粒物主要源于室外渗入。地壳源矿物尘在窟内颗粒物化学组成中多占据统治地位,且春季占比显著高于冬季。碳组分和总水溶性无机离子占比在细颗粒中明显高于粗颗粒,冬季窟内PM2.5中酸性组分在无机离子中占据统治地位。本研究提供的莫高窟十年前后不同粒径颗粒物浓度及其化学组成等背景值,可为窟内污染的来源解析和大气环境控制系统的建立提供基础数据。

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    • [20] GHEDINI N,GOBBI G,SABBIONI C,et al. Determination of elemental and organic carbon on damaged stone monuments[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2000,34:4383-4391.

    • [21] 马燕天,汪万福,马旭,等.敦煌莫高窟洞窟内外空气中微生物的对比研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2011,23(1):13-18. MA Yantian,WANG Wanfu,MA Xu,et al. The comparative study of airborne microorganisms between close cave and outside cave environments in Mogao Grottoes,Dunhuang[J]. Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2011,23(1):13-18.

    • [22] 武发思,朱非清,汪万福,等.日本高松冢古坟微生物病害及其防治研究概述[J].文物保护与考古科学,2019,31(3):26-35. WU Fasi,ZHU Feiqing,WANG Wanfu,et al. Review of microbial deterioration and control of Takamatsuzuka Tumulus,Japan[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2019,31(3):26-35.

    • [23] CARTECHINI L,CASTELLINI S,MORONI B,et al. Acute episodes of black carbon and aerosol contamination in a museum environment:results of integrated real-time and off-line measurements[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2015,116:130-137.

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    • [26] GYSELS K,DELALIEUX F,DEUTSCH F,et al. Indoor environment and conservation in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts,Antwerp,Belgium[J]. Journal of Cultural Heritage,2004,5(2):221-230.

    • [27] KRÜGER E,DINIZ W. Relationship between indoor thermal comfort conditions and the time weighted preservation index(TWPI)in three Brazilian archives[J]. Applied Energy,2011,88(3):712-723.

    • [28] WANG Y,ZHUANG G,SUN Y,et al. Water-soluble part of the aerosol in the dust stormseason-evidence of the mixing between mineral and pollution aerosols[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2005,39(37):7020-7029.

  • 参考文献

    • [1] BRIMBLECOMBE P. Urban pollution and changes to materials and building surfaces[M].London:Imperial College Press,2016.

    • [2] NAZAROFF W M,SALMON L G,CASS G R. Concentration and fate of airborne particles in museums[J]. Environment Science & Technology,1990,24:66-77.

    • [3] CAMUFFO D,BRIMBLECOMBE P,VAN GRIEKEN R,et al. Indoor air quality at the Correr Museum,Venice,Italy[J]. Science of the Total Environment,1999,236:135-152.

    • [4] 李最雄.敦煌石窟保护工作六十年[J].敦煌研究,2004(3):10-26. LI Zuixiong. Sixty years on the conservation of the Dunhuang Grottoes[J]. Dunhuang Research,2004(3):10-26.

    • [5] TÉTREAULT J. Airborne pollutants in museums,galleries,and archives:risk assessment,control strategies,and preservation management[M]. Ottawa:Canadian Conservation Institute,2003.

    • [6] CLAUSEN G,CARRICK L,FRANGER PO,et al. A comparative study of discomfort caused by indoor air pollution,thermal load and noise[J]. Indoor Air,1993(3):255-262.

    • [7] CHAO C Y H,TUNG T C W,BURNETT J. Influence of different indoor activities on the indoor particulate levels in residential buildings[J]. Indoor and Built Environment,1998,7(2):110-121.

    • [8] CAO J J,RONG B,LEE S C,et al. Composition of indoor aerosols at Emperor Qin’s Terra-Cotta Museum,Xi’an,China,during summer,2004[J]. China Particuology Science and Technology of Particles,2005,3(3):170-175.

    • [9] CAO J J,LEE S C,HO K F,et al. Spatial and seasonal distributions of atmospheric carbonaceous aerosols in Pearl River Delta Region,China[J]. China Particuology Science and Technology of Particles,2003,1(1):33-37.

    • [10] XU H M,CAO J J,HO K F,et al. Lead concentrations in fine particulate matter after the phasing out of leaded gasoline in Xi’an,China[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2011,46:217-224.

    • [11] HU T F,CAO J J,SHEN Z X,et al. Size differentiation of individual atmospheric aerosol during Winter in Xi’an,China[J]. Aerosol and Air Quality Research,2012,12(5):951-960.

    • [12] 刘立超,沈志宝,王涛,等.敦煌地区沙尘气溶胶质量浓度的观测研究[J].高原气象,2005,24(5):765-771. LIU Lichao,SHEN Zhibao,WANG Tao,et al. Observation study on mass concentration of dust aerosols in Dunhuang[J]. Plateau Meteorology,2005,24(5):765-771.

    • [13] 汪万福,王涛,沈志宝,等.敦煌莫高窟区大气环境成分的监测分析[J].高原气象,2006,25(1):164-168. WANG Wanfu,WANG Tao,SHENG Zhibao,et al. Pollution status of harmful components to frescos in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes[J]. Plateau Meteorology,2006,25(1):164-168.

    • [14] American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers. Museums,galleries,archives,and libraries[M]//Heating,Ventilating,and Air-conditioning Applications.Atlanta:ASHRAE,2011.

    • [15] LUOMA M,BATTERMAN S A. Characterization of particulate emissions from occupant activities in offices[J]. Indoor Air-International Journal of Indoor Air Quality and Climate,2001(11):35-48.

    • [16] SARAGA D,PATERAKI S,PAPADOPOULOS A,et al. Studying the indoor air quality in three non-residential environments of different use:a museum,a printery industry and an office[J].Building and Environment,2011,46:2333-2341.

    • [17] 张国彬,汪万福,薛平,等.敦煌莫高窟典型洞窟空气交换速率的对比分析[J].敦煌研究,2009(6):100-104. ZHANG Guobin,WANG Wanfu,XUE Ping,et al. Comparative analysis of air exchange rate of typical caves in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes[J]. Dunhuang Research,2009(6):100-104.

    • [18] SHEN Z X,CAO J J,LI X X,et al. Mass concentration and mineralogical characteristics of aerosol particles collected at Dunhuang during ACE-Asia[J].Advances in Atmospheric Sciences,2006,23(2):291-298.

    • [19] WATSON J G,CHOW J C,LU Z,et al. Chemical mass balance source apportionment of PM10 during the Southern California air quality study[J].Aerosol Science and Technology,1994,21(1):1-36.

    • [20] GHEDINI N,GOBBI G,SABBIONI C,et al. Determination of elemental and organic carbon on damaged stone monuments[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2000,34:4383-4391.

    • [21] 马燕天,汪万福,马旭,等.敦煌莫高窟洞窟内外空气中微生物的对比研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2011,23(1):13-18. MA Yantian,WANG Wanfu,MA Xu,et al. The comparative study of airborne microorganisms between close cave and outside cave environments in Mogao Grottoes,Dunhuang[J]. Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2011,23(1):13-18.

    • [22] 武发思,朱非清,汪万福,等.日本高松冢古坟微生物病害及其防治研究概述[J].文物保护与考古科学,2019,31(3):26-35. WU Fasi,ZHU Feiqing,WANG Wanfu,et al. Review of microbial deterioration and control of Takamatsuzuka Tumulus,Japan[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2019,31(3):26-35.

    • [23] CARTECHINI L,CASTELLINI S,MORONI B,et al. Acute episodes of black carbon and aerosol contamination in a museum environment:results of integrated real-time and off-line measurements[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2015,116:130-137.

    • [24] CHATOUTSIDOU S E,LAZARIDIS M. Assessment of the impact of particulate dry deposition on soiling of indoor cultural heritage objects found in churches and museums/libraries[J]. Journal of Cultural Heritage,2019,39:221-228.

    • [25] 杨小菊,武发思,徐瑞红,等.敦煌莫高窟大气颗粒物中水溶性离子变化及来源解析[J].高原气象,2021,40(2):436-447. YANG Xiaoju,WU Fasi,XU Ruihong,et al. Variation and source analysis of water-soluble lons in the atmospheric particles of Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang[J]. Plateau Meteorology,2021,40(2):436-447.

    • [26] GYSELS K,DELALIEUX F,DEUTSCH F,et al. Indoor environment and conservation in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts,Antwerp,Belgium[J]. Journal of Cultural Heritage,2004,5(2):221-230.

    • [27] KRÜGER E,DINIZ W. Relationship between indoor thermal comfort conditions and the time weighted preservation index(TWPI)in three Brazilian archives[J]. Applied Energy,2011,88(3):712-723.

    • [28] WANG Y,ZHUANG G,SUN Y,et al. Water-soluble part of the aerosol in the dust stormseason-evidence of the mixing between mineral and pollution aerosols[J]. Atmospheric Environment,2005,39(37):7020-7029.