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作者简介:

王宜飞(1983—),男,研究馆员,研究方向为竹木漆器类文物保护研究、文物数字化保护研究,E-mail:wangyifei@hnmuseum.com

中图分类号:K876;O433.4

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1005-1538(2023)06-0058-11

DOI:10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20220602587

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目录contents

    摘要

    利用便携式能量色散型X射线荧光光谱仪和三维数字显微系统,对湖南出土的11颗战国时期典型的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠进行科学分析。基于获取的蜻蜓眼珠化学成分、表面和断面显微形貌等相关信息,确定了这批蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的成分体系、制作工艺和产地来源。研究结果表明:3颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠属于泡碱型钠钙玻璃,1颗扁平蜻蜓眼玻璃珠为植物灰钠钙玻璃,均可能产自埃及或东地中海地区;3颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠属于铅钡玻璃,还有4颗为钾钙玻璃,皆为战国时期典型的中国本土玻璃,应为楚国本地制作。这11颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠均采用层叠镶嵌工艺,先制作珠体,然后再用不同玻璃条或片在未完全凝固的状态下进行镶嵌而成。

    Abstract

    Eye glass beads are the most typical type of glass artifacts from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period to the Han Dynasties in ancient China. They played a crucial role in cultural exchanges and technological dissemination between China and foreign countries, as well as in the origination and evolution of ancient Chinese glass technology. A large number of glass artifacts dated from the Warring States Period have been unearthed in Hunan Province, with more than 200 eye glass beads alone. Many scholars have paid attention to and conducted various studies on the glass products unearthed in Hunan Province over the past decades; however, there is still a lack of specialized scientific characterization and research on eye glass beads in general. The Chu State was one of the key regions for the origination and development of ancient glass technology in ancient China, as well as for technological and cultural exchanges. Hunan Province, located in the core area of the Chu State, is of great significance to the study of the status of Hunan in the origination and development of glass handicraft technology during the Warring States Period.

    In order to scientifically reveal the chemical composition systems, manufacturing techniques, provenances and cultural exchanges of eye glass beads dated to the Warring States Period unearthed in Hunan Province, eleven typical eye glass beads from Changsha, Changde and Hengyang of this period were selected for scientific analysis. A portable energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer and a 3D digital microscopic system were used for non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition, surface and cross-sectional micro-structures. Based on a combination of the obtained scientific information with previous relevant research results, this study discusses and determines the flux system, manufacturing techniques and provenance of this batch of eye glass beads.

    Based on these results, it was found that the laminated inlay manufacturing technique was used for all the eleven eye glass beads. The matrix was first produced, and then inlaid with different glass strips or slices during the incomplete solidification state. In terms of the chemical composition system, the eleven eye glass beads belong to three systems: soda-lime silicate glass, lead-barium silicate glass and potash-lime silicate glass. Among them, three eye glass beads are natron sub-type soda-lime glass, and the one flat eye glass bead is plant-ash sub-type soda-lime glass. Both the two types of glass beads were probably produced in Egypt or eastern Mediterranean area, and were then transported into Hunan via the land Silk Road. Another three eye glass beads are lead-barium glass, and the remaining four beads are potash-lime glass. Both of the types are typical native Chinese glasses during the Warring States Period. These seven eye glass beads were produced by local craftsmen in the Chu State using two characteristic native Chinese formulas. However, they also drew on and imitated the shape and laminated inlay manufacturing technique of eye glass beads imported from abroad. At the same time, the potash-lime glass beads were also influenced by the technology of traditional Chinese potash-rich faience beads, demonstrating the exquisite craftsmanship and boundless creativity of ancient Chinese artisans.

    The research in this article, to a certain extent, scientifically reveals the main flux system and manufacturing techniques of typical eye glass beads unearthed in Hunan Province dated to the Warring States Period, and explores the possible provenances of these glass beads. The results could provide a valuable perspective on the development level of glass handicraft technology in the Chu State and surrounding areas during the Warring States Period, as well as on regional and Sino-foreign exchanges.

    关键词

    蜻蜓眼珠湖南战国成分体系制作工艺

  • 0 引言

  • 蜻蜓眼玻璃珠是我国春秋战国至汉代最为典型的一类玻璃器,出土数量多、器形丰富、风格多样、分布地域广泛,具有多种用途和功能,是学界关注的一个热点。湖南在春秋战国时期属于楚国的核心区域,而楚国又是我国古代玻璃技术起源与发展以及技术和文化交流的关键区域。湖南境内出土了大量战国时期的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠,多达240余件[1],器形多样——球形、扁球形、算珠形、圆柱形、短圆柱形等,珠体有透明、半透明和不透明三种。大多是组玉佩中的部件,少量作为手串或项链使用[2]。蜻蜓眼玻璃珠饰在中外文化交流、技术传播,以及中国古代玻璃技术起源与演变过程中具有举足轻重的作用。早在20世纪50年代,袁翰青就曾科学分析过湖南长沙出土的玻璃器[3];随后的80年代,高志喜[4-6]、石美光[5]、熊传新[5]、吴铭生[7]和周世荣[8]等学界专家,对湖南境内出土的战国至汉代的玻璃璧、剑饰及玻璃矛等开展了多学科研究。21世纪以来,亦有少量湖南出土战国玻璃璧和玻璃珠得到过科学分析[9-11]和文物学研究[12];此外,崔剑锋等[13-14]、赵瑞廷等[15]曾对湖南常德出土的玻璃璧、剑饰及少量蜻蜓眼玻璃珠进行过科学分析。但截至目前,仍缺乏对湖南出土的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的专题科学研究。

  • 1 样品情况

  • 本工作选取11颗湖南长沙、常德和衡阳出土的战国时期蜻蜓眼玻璃珠进行科学分析,研究其化学成分体系、助熔剂类型、着色工艺、加工工艺,并探讨其风格特点和产地来源。样品照片见图1,样品详细信息见表1。这11颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠共有6种形态,其中:11032为扁平形(图1a);11031为球形(图1b);4855和435平眼球形(图1c和图1d);442为扁球形(图1e);11029为球形多眼珠(图1f);11286~11288为筒形管状多眼珠(图1g~图1i)。

  • 11029、11031(A、B、C)、11032、11286~11288号样品均是1980年出土于湖南省常德市临澧县九里公社(现九里乡)一号大型楚墓的。该墓形制为正东西向的带有斜坡墓道的近正方形竖穴土坑木椁墓。根据随葬的虎座凤鸟鼓架、镇墓兽等在江陵中期楚墓中比较常见的器物,推断该墓葬年代应在战国中期偏早。从墓坑规模和葬具规格判断墓主人地位与湖北江陵天星观一号墓墓主人邸阳君相当——不是楚国的一般官吏,其身份极有可能是楚国派到长江以南的一个封君[16]。442号样品于1964年在长沙北郊九尾冲水泥电杆厂工地M1出土,根据对长沙楚墓分类及分期研究成果,该墓为乙类四期八段,即战国晚期中段的使用二至四鼎的士级墓[9]。435号样品1954年出土于长沙新河19号战国墓,根据对长沙楚墓分类及分期研究成果,该墓为丙类四期,即战国晚期使用一鼎和日用陶器随葬的庶人、平民和贫民墓[9]。而4855号样品1954年出土于衡阳公行山的战国时期5号墓[1]

  • 图1 蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品照片

  • Fig.1 Photos of the eye glass bead samples

  • 表1 蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品信息

  • Table1 Information of the glass eye bead samples

  • (续表1)

  • 2 实验方法

  • 2.1 能量色散型X射线荧光光谱分析技术

  • 采用型号为OURSTEX 100FA能量色散型X射线荧光光谱仪进行化学成分分析。该设备采用金属钯(Pd)作为X射线源,X射线管的激发电压最高可达40 kV,最大功率为50 W,辐照到样品表面的X射线焦斑直径约为2.5 mm。设备主要由四个单元——探测器单元、高压单元、控制单元和数据处理单元组成。探测器单元又包括低真空探测单元和大气探测单元,本次测试采用低真空探测器单元。数据处理单元主要包括控制软件及定性、定量分析软件。仪器相关参数及定量分析方法请参阅相关文献[17]。此设备已经成功应用于新疆[18]、广西[19]、河南[20]以及广东、江苏、湖北、山东等地[21-23]出土的古代钠钙、铅钡和钾(钙)玻璃器研究。

  • 2.2 显微观察

  • 显微分析采用日本HIROX公司生产的HRX-01型三维数字显微系统,配有XYZ三轴全电动系统(Z轴50 nm、XY轴156 nm步进精度),搭配HR-1020E电动远心变焦镜头(10~200倍),自动捕获Z轴全焦点图像,一键拍摄图像最高1亿像素,内置可编程全景XYZ视场拼接软件,可获取巨幅超高清画质图像。

  • 3 结果与讨论

  • 这批蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的化学成分分析结果如表2所示,从中可知这9颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠可分为钠钙、钾钙和铅钡硅酸盐玻璃三种体系,其中钠钙玻璃又包括泡碱型和植物灰型两个亚类。

  • 表2 蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品的pXRF化学成分分析结果

  • Table2 Chemical compositions of the glass eye bead samples using pXRF

  • 注:“n.d.”表示此种组分或元素含量低,而没有检测到;“M”表示此种元素为主量或次量组分。

  • 3.1 化学成分分析

  • 3.1.1 钠钙玻璃

  • 湖南临澧九里M1出土的编号为11032和11031(A、B、C)的4颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的基体和眼珠部位均有含量较高的Na2O、CaO和SiO2,其含量范围分别为0.99%~8.25%、6.65%~9.38%和74.08%~83.24%,表明4颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠为域外输入钠钙玻璃。不过,由于古代玻璃的风化腐蚀会导致表面助熔剂流失,故通过表面无损分析所获取的助熔剂含量会低于真实成分[24]。所分析的3颗球形蜻蜓眼珠样品11031表面的Na2O含量均低于2.50%,系风化所致。此外,这3颗样品中未检出MgO和P2O5,且K2O的含量均低于1.20%,属于泡碱型钠钙玻璃亚类;而扁平形蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品11032的基体和眼珠中均有含量较高的MgO,含量分别为2.57%和4.39%,并含有约1.30%的K2O,该扁平蜻蜓眼珠为植物灰型钠钙玻璃[25]——这种类型的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠在中国国内发现较少,其他发现地有湖北随州擂鼓墩曾侯乙墓[26]、江苏无锡鸿山越墓[27]等。临澧出土的扁平形蜻蜓眼玻璃珠,与曾侯乙墓的化学成分也颇为相似,且均含有少量的SnO2

  • 3 颗球形珠样品中有2颗的眼珠部位有含量较高的Co(约700 μg/g)和Fe2O3(1.80%左右),而MnO和CuO含量极低,深蓝色眼珠使用了高铁低锰特点的钴料做着色剂。此外,这3颗蜻蜓眼珠的基体和眼珠部位中均检测到含量较高的Sb2O3,含量分布范围为1.75%~8.03%,应该是白色部位所使用的锑酸钙乳浊剂(CaSb2O6)渗透所致,这种类型的蜻蜓眼珠在河南徐家岭楚墓[28]、湖北随州曾侯乙墓[26]和枣阳郭家庙[29]以及辽宁建昌东大杖子[30]等战国墓均有发现。而扁平形蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品11032有含量较高的CuO(基体和眼珠部位的含量分别为2.03%和2.49%)和含量较低的Fe2O3(不足1%),说明该样品的着色剂为铜离子。此外,该样品中的蓝色部位还检测到少量的Sb2O3(基体和眼珠部位含量分别为0.28%和0.72%),可能是因为白色部位使用了锑酸钙乳浊剂渗透到蓝色区域所致。

  • 蜻蜓眼玻璃珠早在古埃及第十八王朝晚期的阿蒙霍特普三世(Amenhotep Ⅲ)时期(公元前1391—公元前1353)业已十分流行。在埃及或东地中海沿岸,层叠眼珠技术于公元前7世纪得到恢复[31]。与扁平蜻蜓眼珠类似的双眼纹装饰珠饰最早在两河流域的乌尔(Ur)地区有类似纹饰的石质珠饰,后来在古埃及第十八王朝时期出现了与本工作所分析扁平蜻蜓眼玻璃珠十分相似的玻璃珠饰,且化学成分也较为接近,但其时代相对较早。与本工作所分析扁平玻璃珠年代相近,且化学成分相似的玻璃珠饰在伊朗地区有发现,但未发现双眼纹装饰的珠饰。

  • 公元前3世纪以前中西方交流的主要贸易途径是陆上丝绸之路(沙漠丝绸之路和草原丝绸之路),结合以往战国时期钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的研究结果,本研究倾向于认为这4颗钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠系通过陆上丝绸之路——可能由埃及或东地中海地区传入的。

  • 3.1.2 铅钡玻璃扁球形蜻蜓眼玻璃珠

  • 样品442中均有含量较高的PbO和SiO2(其含量分别为34.38%和51.41%),该样品还含有少量的Al2O3、BaO和CaO(其含量分别为6.29%、1.56%和1.76%)。参考以往战国时期铅钡玻璃的研究结果[21],笔者认为该蜻蜓眼玻璃珠应属于国产铅钡玻璃,BaO含量偏低可能与风化导致助熔剂流失有关。样品中有含量较高的Al2O3,说明配方可能使用了含量较高的Al2O3石英矿物原料。该样品中K2O和MgO的含量较低(不足1%)。着色剂方面,样品442的绿色眼珠部位则具有铜高铁低的特点——CuO和Fe2O3含量分别为1.03%和0.57%,着色剂以铜离子为主。此外,采用奥林巴斯手持式X射线荧光光谱仪对菱形点纹蜻蜓眼玻璃珠435和4855进行了定性分析,两者也属于铅钡玻璃。

  • 3.1.3 钾钙玻璃样品

  • 样品10209、11286、11287和11288为蓝色基体,外表基本满饰深蓝色眼纹,基体和眼珠中均有含量较高的K2O、CaO和SiO2(其含量范围分别为8.38%~13.87%、3.61%~7.55%和64.29%~76.56%),表明这4颗蜻蜓眼玻璃珠为本土典型钾钙玻璃。这4颗蜻蜓眼珠的基体和眼珠中还有含量较高的CuO(3.52%~6.54%)和少量的Fe2O3(1.10%~1.77%),说明这类蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的主要着色剂为铜离子,但铁离子也对着色起到一定作用。

  • 3.2 显微形貌制作工艺分析

  • 从钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品的显微照片(图2)可以看出:扁平形珠11032的白色和浅蓝色眼纹均呈不完全规则圆形,向四周有不同程度延伸,眼珠部位可见玻璃液流动的纹路和气泡(图2a和图2b);而球形珠11031的乳白色、棕色和蓝色玻璃层叠镶嵌玉蓝色基体之上,乳白色和棕色眼纹部分呈不规则圆形,两个眼纹之间也嵌入乳白色“鼻根部”(图2c和图2d)。棕色条纹嵌入乳白色条纹之中,深浅不一,条纹粗细不一,细处约70 μm,表面棕色条纹破裂处可见乳白色。相对而言,深蓝色眼珠较为规整,直径约3 300 μm,大多嵌入乳白色眼纹一角,极个别嵌在中心位置。说明这两类蜻蜓眼玻璃珠均采用层叠镶嵌工艺:应是先用型芯法(rod-forming)[32]制成蓝色或绿色基体;然后在有热源的情况下,再用非凝固状态下软化的乳白色、蓝色、深蓝色、棕色玻璃片或条依次镶嵌,形成多层结构,而不是用冷却后的玻璃片进行镶嵌。对扁平形蜻蜓眼珠而言,将白乳色的玻璃条嵌入眼睛部位,形成白色底纹,然后再将蓝色玻璃片嵌到白色之上,形成眼珠纹。由于蓝色玻璃片比基体薄,在与之相邻的白色玻璃条或片衬托下,以致眼珠的颜色较基体的颜色浅。对球形蜻蜓眼玻璃珠而言,在有热源的情况下,用软化的乳白色玻璃条嵌入绿色基体,再将软化的棕色玻璃条嵌入到乳白色之上,最后将半凝固状态的深蓝色玻璃条嵌入到乳白色条纹之中,这与河南省淅川县徐家岭出土该类蜻蜓眼玻璃珠层叠镶嵌工艺类似[28]。这两类蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的穿孔都很光滑,无明显钻磨痕迹,应该是预制孔。

  • 图2 钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品显微照片

  • Fig.2 Micrographs of the soda-lime eye glass bead samples

  • 图3为铅钡蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的显微照片,从中可以看出所镶嵌的眼纹均有不同程度的缺失和残损。相对而言,菱形点纹蜻蜓眼珠样品4855保存最好,缺失最少,白色和蓝色眼圈粗细不均匀,大蜻蜓眼珠的中心蓝色眼珠居中,而小蜻蜓眼纹中心的蓝色眼珠偏向一侧(图3a和图3b)。而样品435上所镶嵌的眼珠均已脱落,留下镶嵌时外力作用形成的凹坑(图3c和图3d)。扁球形蜻蜓眼玻璃珠442(图3e和图3f)的制作工艺与凸角形珠类似,眼珠微微凸起,只是珠体较薄。从残损的眼珠断面来看,蓝色眼珠嵌入白色眼底内部。从工艺来说,这几颗铅钡玻璃蜻蜓眼珠也属于层叠镶嵌工艺,白色和蓝色眼纹应是玻璃条在半凝固状态下镶嵌所致的,样品4855的温度和工艺控制得更娴熟,制作考究,眼纹和珠体贴合较好。光滑的珠孔也是在用型芯法制作玻璃基体时预制而成的。

  • 用菱形点纹装饰的是一类典型的本土铅钡玻璃蜻蜓眼珠,除了长沙和衡阳外,湖南里耶麦茶、湘乡牛形山和贺家山、岳阳汨罗、益阳郝山庙、怀化黔阳古城、辰溪米家滩、郴州、永州等多地的战国楚墓皆有发现[1]。另外,在河南新郑西亚斯和南阳万家园战国墓[20],四川青川县郝家坪战国墓和重庆市南岸上新街电信局西汉墓[33]亦有发现。从出土数量和分布地域来看,楚文化地域最多。湖南境内蕴藏有富含铅和钡的矿床资源,如临湘、桂阳、郴县(今郴州市苏仙区)等有铅锌矿[主要矿物有方铅矿(PbS)和闪锌矿(ZnS)等],衡南、衡阳、绥宁、隆回、湘潭、新化等有重晶石(BaSO3)矿[34]。而长沙楚墓中有20座墓中出土有铅饼、铅块、铅条或铅鼎等铅器[9]。依据“基于风格与分布的考古遗物产地推定法”[35],本研究倾向于认为楚国的中心地区如长沙等地是该类蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的制作中心,并向周边地区输送。

  • 图3 铅钡蜻蜓眼玻璃珠样品显微照片

  • Fig.3 Micrographs of the lead-barium eye glass bead samples

  • 由图4可以看出,钾钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠采用的也是层叠镶嵌工艺,均是用型芯法先制作球形或筒形玻璃珠体,然后在上面依次镶嵌白色和蓝色眼纹,眼纹皆凸起于基体表面。相对而言,球形珠的白色眼纹镶嵌得不牢固,缺失眼珠,蓝色眼珠也多有残缺(图4a),应该与镶嵌时玻璃片的冷却温度掌握得不够娴熟有关。而管状蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的白色和蓝色眼纹镶嵌得较为牢固,该类蜻蜓眼珠制作时,留一面不饰眼纹(图4b),以平放便于眼纹镶嵌操作。管状珠的白色眼纹也存在粗细和深浅不均的现象,边界略不规整,蓝色眼纹亦有向白色渗透的趋势(图4c和图4d)。从显微断面来看(图4e~图4i),该类玻璃珠在制作时似乎要先制作一个石英砂芯层,厚度约900 μm,这可能与中国富钾釉砂的施釉法制作技术存在一定渊源[36]。蓝色玻璃厚度约1 800 μm,白色眼纹厚度厚处490~580 μm。从珠体3D图像及测量结果(图4j和图4k)来看,蓝色眼珠的高度1 000~1 500 μm,直径4 400~5 700 μm。

  • 钾钙玻璃是中国最早的一类本土玻璃,始于春秋末期至战国早期,如江苏无锡战国早期的鸿山越墓出土有蓝色钾钙玻璃管和珠等[37];在湖北襄樊(今襄阳)、团山和江陵,湖南常德澧县新洲墓[38],河南南阳淅川申明铺[39],陕西西安[40]及四川[41]等地也发现一些战国中期至晚期的钾钙玻璃或玻璃化钾钙釉砂蜻蜓眼和管等器物。另外,湖北江陵望山1号墓出土的著名越王勾践剑的剑格上也镶嵌有钾钙玻璃片。而欧洲的钾钙玻璃主要是在中世纪才大量出现[42]。中国西周中晚期到春秋时期,许多富钾的釉砂被发现[36],且湖北枣阳郭家庙在西周晚期至春秋时期就也发现有钾钙釉砂,这客观上为钾钙玻璃的起源积累了一定原料配方基础。从出土数量来看,钾钙玻璃主要发现于战国时期以湖北和湖南为中心的楚文化范围内,楚国应该是钾钙玻璃的一个制作中心。由此,本工作所分析的钾钙玻璃蜻蜓眼珠当为楚地制作的。

  • 图4 钾钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠显微照片

  • Fig.4 Micrographs of the potash-lime eye glass bead samples

  • 4 结论

  • 结合以往的研究结果来看:此次所分析的钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠应产自埃及或东地中海地区,均经由陆上丝绸之路传入湖南境内;铅钡和钾钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠则产自楚国境内,为本地工匠借鉴域外输入的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的造型和层叠镶嵌工艺,并受到中国传统富钾釉砂的技术影响,采用两种中国特色的本土配方烧制和加工而成的。

  • 本工作所分析的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠均属于层叠玻璃珠,采用层叠镶嵌工艺:先用型芯法制作玻璃珠体;然后在有热源的情况下,再用非凝固状态下软化的玻璃条或片进行层叠镶嵌,以呈现眼纹装饰。不同的工匠对玻璃条或片的冷却温度掌握和镶嵌技术熟练程度存在较大差异,以至于不同颜色纹饰会有相互渗透、条带边界和深浅不规整的现象。域外输入的钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的眼纹嵌入到基体内部,基本不凸起。而本土制作的铅钡和钾钙蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的眼纹大都凸起于表面之外,这一方面与工匠特殊的造型创意有关,另一方面也可能与当时的制作技术不成熟有关,与诸如湖北荆州楚墓[43]、河南淮阳平粮台[30]和山东曲阜鲁国故城[44]等地出土的铅钡蜻蜓眼珠的制作质量和工艺水平存在明显差异。

  • 致谢:感谢中国科学院上海光学精密机械研究所袁仪梦女士及湖南博物院覃璇女士和刘琦先生在实验过程中给予的支持和帮助。

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