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作者简介:

汪泽生(1997—),男,2023年毕业于上海大学核技术应用专业,硕士,研究方向为辐照技术在馆藏文物保护中的应用,E-mail:zswang@ihep.ac.cn

通讯作者:

罗敏,女,副研究员,研究方向为核技术应用,E-mail:minluo@ihep.ac.cn

中图分类号:K876.91;TL99

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1005-1538(2023)04-0159-09

DOI:10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20211102322

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目录contents

    摘要

    纸张是人类历史文化信息的重要载体,纸质文物的妥善保存是文明延续的一部分。纸制品在使用及存储期间,除发生自然老化外,还受到以真菌为主的微生物损害,因此纸张消毒处理是保护过程中的重要步骤。本文总结了微生物对纸制品的危害以及常用的化学和物理消毒方法,重点介绍了电离辐射对纸制品消毒的成效,并分析了辐照对纸张机械性能、颜色和聚合度等方面的影响。

    Abstract

    Paper is an important carrier of human historical and cultural information, and the proper preservation of paper cultural relics is part of the continuation of civilizations. Paper products can be damaged due to natural aging and fungi-based microorganisms during their use and storage. Disinfection of paper is an important step in the conservation process. This paper summarizes the hazards of microorganisms to paper products and the common chemical and physical disinfection methods, focuses on the disinfection effects of ionizing radiation on paper products, and analyzes the influences of radiation on the mechanical properties, color and degree of polymerization of paper.

    关键词

    电子束辐照消毒色差聚合度机械性能老化

  • 0 引言

  • 上千年来,人类的大部分历史文化以各种形式记录在纸张上,纸张也是最通用的信息储存介质,因此对它们的保护至关重要。纸张的主要成分是纤维素、半纤维素、木质素和添加剂(填料、胶料、颜料)。随着时间的推移,纸张会经历自然老化,而其成分也决定了它容易受到微生物的损害[1],因此在纸张的保护过程中,良好的保存环境和有效的消毒非常重要。

  • 为了避免生物因素的威胁,人们常用的消毒方法分为化学和物理方法。化学方法有乙醇、甲醛、百里酚试剂和溴甲烷、环氧乙烷熏蒸等,化学法品类多,应用方便,但会在处理过的物品上留下对人类健康有危害的残留物[2],也会对纸张有一定影响,如乙醇等会使纸张失去光泽,甲醛会使纸张失去弹性[3]

  • 而电离辐射、紫外线作为物理方法,具有高效的杀菌性以及无残留物等优点。辐射消毒已被成功应用于医疗用品及部分文物[4-7],也逐渐被成功用于受微生物损害的书籍和档案的处理[8-10]。但辐射会对纸张基质产生一定影响,如造成机械性能、颜色和纤维素聚合度的变化[11]。所有文物保护方法都有时效性[312],如果后续保护不当,易受二次侵害,并且纸张的多次辐照容易使纸张变脆[12-13]

  • 本文通过分析国内外纸制品的消毒研究现状,探究电离辐射对受微生物损害的纸张消毒的优势与缺点,总结消毒过程与纸张质基材损害的规律,以期为我国受损害的纸质文物辐照消毒提供参考借鉴。

  • 1 保存中的威胁

  • 纸张在保存过程中面临的主要问题来源于自然老化和微生物的损害:自然老化可以定义为随时间推移缓慢发生的不可逆的变化,纸张性能下降,不再适合作为信息的载体[14];微生物威胁主要来自真菌及其孢子,真菌的生长发育会造成纸张的机械损伤、酸腐蚀、酶降解以及对人体的健康产生危害[15-17]。认知这些问题能够帮助人们更好地去保护纸张这一重要的历史信息媒介。

  • 1.1 纸的老化

  • 影响纸张自然老化的因素有内源性的pH值、金属离子、木质素、降解产物以及外源性的光、温度、湿度、氧化、污染等[18]。其中,由酸催化的水解是使纸张降解的主要原因,金属离子、降解产物、污染等的存在都会加速这一过程,而木质素的存在则容易引起纸张的变色[19]。对温度和湿度的控制有利于减缓纸张的降解,目前推荐图书馆、档案馆和博物馆中存放纸张的区域应将温度保持在尽可能低的水平(20℃以下),且相对湿度(RH)介于20%~65%[14]

  • 自然老化会导致纸张性能的全面降低,引起聚合度——关于降解的最重要的化学指标的下降。聚合度的降低直接影响机械性能,纸张的耐折性首当其冲,然后是撕裂度,抗张强度对于聚合度降低的响应较弱,据报道即使是严重老化的纸张仍能保持很大比例的抗张强度[20]。纸张的光学性能也会受到老化的影响,主要表现在于CIE L*a*b*色度中L*(亮度)值的降低以及b*值的升高(变黄)[21]

  • 此外,纸张的人工加速老化是研究纸张长期变化的一种重要手段,通过在适当的温度和湿度以及环境中加速纸张的老化,有助于阐明和理解纸张的降解机理,评估纸张降解的动力学途径[22]。当前推荐的是在恒温恒湿箱中进行80℃、65%RH条件下的湿老化[23],又由于纸张的不均匀性以及材质差异,目前仍没有自然老化和人工老化关系间定量的结论,但加速老化实验仍具有很强的参考意义,也在研究中被广泛使用。

  • 1.2 真菌威胁

  • 1.2.1 种属和危害

  • 馆藏文物中的真菌种类众多,其存在严重威胁纸张的保存。Zyska[24]从图书馆材料中分离出84个真菌属,共234种;Mesquita[25]统计出科英布拉大学档案馆的书籍和档案上存在真菌14属20种,其中最常见的种是枝状枝孢(Cladosporium cladosporioides)、产黄青霉(Penicillium chrysogenum)、杂色曲霉(Aspergillus versicolor)、肉桂铬霉(Chromelosporiumcarneum),最常见的属是枝孢属(Cladosporium spp.)、曲霉属(Aspergillus spp.)和青霉属(Penicillium spp.)。闫丽等[26]从中国文化遗产研究院提供的书画文物霉斑处共分离出22株真菌,且均属于曲霉属和青霉属,以烟曲霉(Aspergillus fumigatus)、棒曲霉(Aspergillus clavatus)和黑曲霉(Aspergillus niger)居多。任珊珊[27]总结了国内公开发表的有关图书馆、档案馆和博物馆内微生物种类的研究,并按我国七大地理分区进行分类,分析相关论文后发现各分区内部微生物种类有相似也有不同,从全国范围来看,检出种类最多的真菌是曲霉属和青霉属,同时各地区均有区别于其他地区特有的微生物。

  • 从生物学角度来看,图书馆中的有机材料为各种微生物提供了合适的定殖场所,它们通过正常代谢活动释放出各种有机物质——螯合物、有机酸、无机酸和色素,加速纸张的降解;其生长和收缩、溶胀现象所施加的机械压力会对支撑材料造成不同类型的损伤:机械损伤(磨损和洞穿)和化学损伤(溶解和新的反应产物产生)。一些纸质文物遭受微生物损害的情况如图1所示。

  • 图1 受微生物损害的文物

  • Fig.1 Microbially damaged cultural relics

  • 1.2.2 消毒方法

  • 为抵御真菌对纸张的损害,人们已使用来自多个学科领域的方法用于阻止真菌的生长,比如使用试剂等化学方法,隔绝水和氧气、极端温度、电离辐射和紫外线等物理方法[31]。通常,使用化学试剂杀菌效率高,但处理后的化学残留物不可避免,且最终会从材料中释放出来,危及工作人员和使用者,此外经过化学试剂处理之后,真菌可能产生药物抗性[32];物理方法无残留,但消毒效果有限。

  • 化学试剂通过其活性成分作用于微生物细胞特定位置,以达到消毒功能。合适的消毒试剂应当是一种广谱试剂,具有良好的化学稳定性、低成本、对人体无毒性以及对处理过的材料无不良影响。下面介绍几种国内外常用于纸张保护的化学试剂(表1)。

  • 表1 化学消毒试剂的比较

  • Table1 Comparison of chemical sterilization methods

  • 大范围消毒处理最常用的是环氧乙烷(ETO)熏蒸。自1933年以来,环氧乙烷被广泛用于历史文物的消毒,它拥有消毒剂所需的高反应性和扩散性,具有很高的消毒效率,但环氧乙烷已被证明具有致癌性,且会附着在处理后的物品上,导致许多国家禁止使用[37-38];而对于纸张上出现的小型菌斑,工作人员则常使用体积分数70%的乙醇处理,再对区域进行隔离[48]

  • 物理消毒方法无残留,对人体健康的威胁更小,虽然杀菌效果不如化学方法,但是在消毒后为藏品提供适宜的储藏环境,依旧能使其得到良好的保护。表2列举了几种物理消毒的方法。

  • 表2 物理消毒方法的比较

  • Table2 Comparison of physical sterilization methods

  • 2 辐射消毒及影响

  • 2.1 电离辐射

  • 电离辐射包括能量高于50 eV的电磁波(如X射线和γ射线)、高能荷电粒子(如被加速的电子、质子、氦核)和裂变中子。目前大多数研究集中在γ射线和电子束对于纸张的保护,两者各有优势:γ射线比电子束具有更高的穿透性;电子束则能做到更高的剂量率,且源强度可调节,同时电子束不涉及放射性物质的处置,需要的防护要求也比较低[57]。量化电离辐射对物质的影响程度,通常使用吸收剂量——每单位质量辐照材料吸收的能量,国际单位为gray(Gy),1Gy=1 J/kg。辐射消毒成本低、安全可控,已被广泛应用于从医疗用品到食品、香料和药用植物、文物等领域[58]

  • 2.2 辐射消毒

  • 辐射消毒的原理在于电离辐射通过电离效应对细胞DNA造成直接且不可逆的损伤。辐射的直接效应表现为在细胞中产生活性氧(ROS),通过双链断裂使DNA变性(细胞中最严重的DNA损伤形式);它还诱导突变,破坏蛋白质(通过施加氧化损伤使酶失活)并最终杀死细胞。此外,细胞内外的水分子辐解这一间接效应导致活性氧、自由基、过氧化物和离子的形成,它们与生物分子如单链和双链DNA反应,致使其变性[25]

  • 电离辐射对纸张进行消毒的研究始于20世纪60年代,Belyakova[59]利用γ射线对受真菌损害纸张进行消杀,此后学者们进行了更广泛的研究。Horáková等[60]通过在各种纸张上接种黄曲霉、黑曲霉、绿色木霉(Trichoderma viride)和单格孢(Ulocladium botrytis),随后进行3~26 kGy的γ辐照,结果显示6 kGy剂量足以消灭这些真菌,8 kGy剂量可以实现整体的无菌性。1980年,约翰·霍普金斯大学的档案保管员曾对已完全被微生侵蚀的具有较高研究价值的295盒纸质文件进行了4.5 kGy剂量的γ辐照,结果显示在辐照后的二十多年中,文件没有出现任何问题,可以继续正常使用清洁[8]。Magaudda[61]对产黄青霉进行的0~10 kGy辐照实验表明,8 kGy即可对其消灭(图2)。Da Silva等[62]对从被化学试剂处理过的书籍中提取出的杂色曲霉进行了γ辐照,发现其在15 kGy剂量下仍有抗性,而在20 kGy时被消灭;同时他们还从中分离出顶孢属(Acremonium spp.)、曲霉属、枝孢属、镰刀菌属(Fusarium spp.)、青霉属和毛孢子菌属(Trichosporon spp.),均在16 kGy剂量内被消灭。笔者所在课题组也做过微生物的辐照实验,使用能量10 MeV、吸收剂量5 kGy的电子束辐照严重抑制了气单胞菌属(Aeromonas spp.)的生长(图3)。

  • 图2 Magaudda进行的产黄青霉辐照实验[61]

  • Fig.2 Irradiation experiments of Penicillium chrysogenum conducted by Magaudda

  • 图3 辐照前(左)后(右)气单胞菌属生长情况 (笔者课题组进行的实验)

  • Fig.3 Growth of Aeromonas spp. before (left) and after (right) irradiation in the experiments conducted by the authors’ group

  • 电子束辐照对纸制文物上使用的油墨、色彩等影响也有一定的研究。Rizzo等[63]曾成功使用γ射线对一幅来自17世纪秘鲁的蛋彩画进行了辐照消毒处理,结果表明6 kGy剂量成功对受真菌侵害的画作进行了消毒,且25 kGy的辐照剂量未使画作颜色发生显著变化。Rocchetti等[64]研究了γ辐射对十种常见的印刷油墨的影响,表明即使在高剂量的辐照以及加速老化的情况下,油墨的颜色也保持着较高的稳定度。

  • 另外一些研究表明某些真菌能够合成具有多种生物学功能的黑色素,从而赋予它们在极端环境、重金属毒性以及太阳辐射和紫外辐射条件下的生存优势[65]。Saleh等[66]测试了交替链格孢(Alternaria alternate)、黄曲霉(Aspergillus flavus)、黑曲霉、烟曲霉、寄生曲霉(Aspergillus parasiticus)、枝状枝孢、曲弯孢霉(Curvulariageniculata)、新月弯孢霉(Curvularialunata)、茄病镰刀菌(Fusarium solani)以及一些青霉属的抗γ辐射能力,并发现其中一些能够合成黑色素的真菌表现出更高的辐射抗性,交替链格孢的辐射抗性在11.5~13.9 kGy,曲弯孢霉和新月弯孢霉的辐射抗性在17~20 kGy,而其他菌种的辐射抗性均在6 kGy内。Dadachova等[67]的研究表明,黑色素能保护真菌抵御辐射在于其独有的化学成分、自由基淬灭过程以及独特的球形空间排列。

  • 综上,电离辐射能够作为纸张保护过程中消灭真菌的有力技术,也有被成功用于纸张保护的案例,且多数真菌在低剂量(10 kGy内)下被消灭,而一些能够合成黑色素的真菌具有更高的辐射抗性,但仍在20 kGy剂量内被消灭。

  • 3 辐照对纸基质的影响

  • 电离辐射虽然被证明是有效的消毒方法,但在消毒的同时会在纤维素分子间产生自由基,形成新的分子结构以及使纤维素链断裂[68],这个过程可能对纸张的性能产生一定影响,研究人员主要关注辐照过程中纸张的聚合度、机械强度以及颜色的变化。

  • 3.1 机械性能

  • 纸张是一种多相复杂且非均质的高分子材料,纸张的机械性能可直观展示其产品质量,良好的机械性能也是日常使用的保障。纸张的强度取决于纸张中纤维本身的强度和纤维的结合强度,通常对不同类型的纸张其测量指标不一,主要有纸张的抗张强度、耐折度和撕裂度等。

  • Adamo等[69]的研究表明,10 kGy剂量的γ辐射不会对沃特曼纸(一种高级绘画纸张)的机械性能产生影响。D’Almeida等[70]对漂白硫酸盐桉树浆制备的纸张进行了辐照实验,测试了其抗张强度和撕裂性,结果表明在最高15 kGy吸收剂量下,纸张的抗张强度降低不到7%,撕裂度的变化则更小。Butterfield[13]测试了四种由碎布浆和机械浆制作的纸张的机械性能,包括耐折度和撕裂性,发现在10 kGy剂量的γ辐照下,各种纸张的机械强度均出现下降,其中撕裂度平均降低10%左右,耐折度则降低20%左右。梁翊等[52]研究了0~10 kGy剂量下γ辐照对报纸、宣纸、竹纸和皮纸的抗张强度和撕裂性的影响,研究表明1 kGy及以下的辐照对四种纸张的机械性能影响非常小,随着辐照剂量的增加其性能有所下降,但下降幅度不大,不影响纸张的使用,并指出2 kGy及以下的剂量不会对纸质品造成破坏。Hwang等[21]使用最高100 kGy的电子束辐照沃特曼纸后,发现其耐折性在最大剂量下降低53%。由此可见低剂量的辐照对纸张机械性能的影响在可接受范围内,并且不同种类的纸张在被辐照后的受影响程度不同,此外不建议对纸张进行高剂量的辐照以及多次辐照。

  • 3.2 聚合度

  • 辐照会引起纤维素的降解,导致聚合度的降低,降低程度取决于辐照条件、吸收剂量以及纸张自身的性质[20]。Adamo等[69]对沃特曼纸进行的γ辐照实验表明,辐射会导致纤维素聚合度降低,两者间存在明确的因果关系。Drabkova等[71]对沃特曼纸以及两种手工纸进行2~19 kGy的γ辐照实验后发现,即使在最低剂量2 kGy情况下,辐照也会显著降低所有被测试纸张的聚合度——在4.7 kGy的剂量下,沃特曼纸的聚合度降低近50%,手工纸的聚合度降低约25%。但聚合度的显著降低并不会直接反映在纸张的机械性能上,据研究,沃特曼纸的聚合度降低58%甚至降低76%均未造成机械性能的明显改变[20]。对此Drabkova等[71]解释道:聚合度的测量通常用黏度法推算而来,而纸张的机械性能在较高降解程度下不仅受到聚合度的影响,还受到纤维结构的影响,因此机械性能的变化不如特性黏度值(聚合度)那样敏感,而零距断裂长度可以在不影响纤维结构下测量纤维性能,但即使是零距断裂长度,仍只有在高剂量辐照下或人工老化后的变化才是明显的。

  • 辐照会明显降低纸张纤维的聚合度,但聚合度的严重降低并未显著影响机械性能,低剂量下电离辐射对纸张机械性能的影响仍是可以接受的。同时辐照对聚合度的研究大多限于对沃特曼这种纯纤维素纸,对其他种类的纸张的研究较少。

  • 3.3 纸张的颜色

  • 纸张颜色变化被认为是由于老化或辐照过程中形成的发色团引起的[72],Ahn等[73]证明了使纸张发黄的“罪魁祸首”是羰基的形成。Bouchard等[74]使用不同剂量的电子束辐照各种纸张后发现,形成羰基的浓度与辐照剂量成正比。羰基的测定通常使用由Jürgen Röhrling等[75]开发的荧光标记测定纤维素中羰基的方法。颜色的变化程度常用CIE L*a*b*色彩系统进行分析,也可以使用带积分球的分光光度计等光学测量法获得纸张样品的反射光谱,从而进行颜色的表征。

  • 报道较多的是CIE L*a*b*系统中b*值的变化,参数b*表示从黄色(+)到蓝色(-)的变化。D’Almeida等[70]测量了3~15 kGy剂量下γ辐照后的化学浆纸张颜色变化,表明参数b*是从9 kGy到更高剂量下变化最大的参数,但整体纸张的颜色变化不足以用肉眼观察到。Chmielewska-S'mietanko等[76]使用分光光度计对辐照后三种纸张(沃特曼、办公纸和新闻纸)色度变化进行了分析,结果表明在最高25 kGy剂量的电子束辐照下:三种纸张的亮度值L*变化均低于1%;沃特曼纸的a*值随剂量增加略微增加,表明纸张有变红的趋势,办公纸的a*值略微降低,意味着纸张有变蓝的趋势,且两种变化均在可接受范围内;b*值的增加出现在剂量高于10 kGy下的新闻纸以及25 kGy时的沃特曼纸。

  • 总体看来辐照对于纸张的颜色影响较小,虽然辐照的确会导致样品色差的增大,但在20 kGy内的消毒剂量下,颜色的变化仍在可接受范围内。

  • 3.4 加速老化

  • Butterfield[13]使用10 kGy剂量的γ辐射研究其对三种手工纸的长期影响,证实辐照和加速老化具有协同效应,辐照加速老化纸张的机械性能的总体下降高于单独辐照或加速老化处理的样品的总和。Adamo等[69]对沃特曼纸的研究也得到了相似的结论,研究显示老化会导致聚合度急剧下降,与辐照一起,会产生协同效应,同时纸张出现了变黄趋势,并且主要是在加速老化后出现的。Coppola等[77]对纯纤维素纸进行了0~10 kGy的γ辐照以及在80℃、65%RH条件下进行的24 h和144 h老化实验,结果表明两者在对聚合度的影响方面,由辐照引起的变化显著大于加速老化,即纸张聚合度的降低主要来自于辐照的影响;而对于颜色的影响,总体上表现为色差随辐照剂量的增加而增加,但加速老化带来的影响显著大于辐照。

  • 总之,加速老化后纸张的各项性能会继续劣化,其中影响最严重的是颜色。为了更好地保存,辐照后应当通过控制环境条件,减少自然老化所带来的后续影响。

  • 3.5 其他影响

  • Bouchard等[74]使用不同能量的电子束(4.5 MeV和10 MeV)对三种不同材质的纸张进行电子束辐照,研究表明在相同吸收剂量20 kGy的情况下,使用高能电子束(10 MeV)辐照带来的纤维断链率要低于4.5 MeV电子束的情况,他们将这一现象解释为一束高能电子在撞击纸张时会形成X射线和二次电子,不同的束能产生不同比例的两者混合,因此形成的自由基的数量和由此产生的纤维素链断裂的数量是不同的,并因此建议进行辐照时尽量使用高的能束。此外,Adamo等[78]的辐照实验表明,辐照不会引起纸张pH的变化,因此不会加速纸张的酸水解过程。

  • 4 结语与展望

  • 现有研究结果显示,辐照消毒的收益是大于风险的,电离辐射在纸张的保护方面具有其他方法无法媲美的优势,但高剂量辐照造成的纤维素聚合度降低以及可能引起的颜色变化,使得该技术的广泛应用尚存争议。目前电离辐射消毒的方法在纸张保存领域仅多用于因自然灾害(如洪水等)造成的受真菌损害藏品的快速消毒,辐射消毒后应将物品放入低温低湿度环境或置于惰性气体氛围中保护,同时按时使用真空吸尘器减少真菌孢子的威胁,减少真菌的再次污染。

  • 目前关于辐射消毒技术对纸张的影响研究,多集中在纯纤维素纸或一些手工纸上,并且现有的研究仍不够全面和深入,而辐照对由不同种类植物纤维构成的纸的影响研究尚未见报道;此外,不同能量电子束、不同剂量率的辐照对纸的影响研究较少,对材质接近中国文物的纸张的辐照影响也尚待研究。要想将辐照消毒技术成功应用到文物古籍的保护,只有综合考虑以上各类情况,研究获取辐照对纸张影响的全面数据,才能在保护过程中分析并设计出应用于不同种类纸张的合理有效的辐照方式,从而实现纸质文物的辐射消毒。

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