en
×

分享给微信好友或者朋友圈

使用微信“扫一扫”功能。
作者简介:

李艳红(1995—),女,2019年硕士毕业于北京大学考古文博学院文物与博物馆专业,研究方向为文物保护技术,E-mail:alicia_lyh@163.com

通讯作者:

曹永康(1972—),上海交通大学设计学院建筑系教授,E-mail:ykcao@sjtu.edu.cn

中图分类号:K879.41

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1005-1538(2023)03-0013-12

DOI:10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20220102395

参考文献 1
王肖艳.蔚县军事堡寨聚落形态研究[D].北京:北京建筑大学,2017.WANG Xiaoyan.The research on form of the defensive fort-type settlements in Yu County[D].Beijing:Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture,2017.
参考文献 2
蔚县地方志编纂委员会.蔚县志[M].北京:中国三峡出版社,1995:36-37.Yu County Local Chronicle Compilation Committee.The annals of Yu County[M].Beijing:China Three Gorges Publishing House,1995:36-37.
参考文献 3
蔚县博物馆.蔚州寺庙壁画[M].北京:科学出版社,2013:16-37.Yuxian Museum.Temple murals of Yuzhou[M].Beijing:Science Press,2013:16-37.
参考文献 4
戴晓云.佛教水陆画研究[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2009:2.DAI Xiaoyun.The study of Buddhist Shui-Lu Painting[M].Beijing:China Social Sciences Press,2009:2.
参考文献 5
杨柳,郝建文,张吟.蔚县壁画研究[J].美术观察,2019(2):67-68.YANG Liu,HAO Jianwen,ZHANG Yin.Research on the wall paintings of Yu County[J].Art Observation,2019(2):67-68.
参考文献 6
郝建文.蔚县故城寺明代壁画[J].当代人,2010(12):17-21.HAO Jianwen.Ming Dynasty murals of Gucheng Temple in Yu County[J].Contemporary,2010(12):17-21.
参考文献 7
杨海勇.蔚县故城寺壁画绘制年代考[J].文物春秋,2016(增刊1):92-94.YANG Haiyong.Research on the drawing age of the murals of Gucheng Temple in Yu County[J].Wenwu Chunqiu,2016(Suppl 1):92-94.
参考文献 8
牛贺强,水碧纹,陈章,等.青海瞿昙寺瞿昙殿壁画制作材料与工艺初步分析[J].文物保护与考古科学,2021,33(6):94-105.NIU Heqiang,SHUI Biwen,CHEN Zhang,et al.Preliminary investigation and analysis of the materials and techniques for Qutan Hall wall paintings,Qinghai[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2021,33(6):94-105.
参考文献 9
MALLETZIDOU L,ZORBA T T,KYRANOUDI M,et al.The dome of Rotunda in Thessaloniki:investigation of a multi-pictorial phase wall painting through analytical methods[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2021,262:120101.
参考文献 10
戴晓云.《天地冥阳水陆仪文》对冥道无遮平等思想和水陆程序的继承[J].佛学研究,2019(1):317-331.DAI Xiaoyun.The inheritance of the idea of the equality of the under world and the water and land procedures in the Tiandi Mingyang Shuilu Ritual Text[J].Buddhist Studies,2019(1):317-331.
参考文献 11
刘栋.山西现存佛教水陆壁画调查与研究[D].临汾:山西师范大学,2019.LIU Dong.Investigation and research on existing Buddhist water and water mural in Shanxi Province[D].Linfen:Shanxi Normal University,2019.
参考文献 12
张尚欣,张卫星,付倩丽,等.秦陵建筑基址壁画材质及制作工艺的初步研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2021,33(6):20-27.ZHANG Shangxin,ZHANG Weixing,FU Qianli,et al.Preliminary study of the materials and techniques of wall painting from affiliated building remains excavated at Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2021,33(6):20-27.
参考文献 13
FIKRI I,EL AMRAOUI M,HADDAD M,et al.Raman and ATR-FTIR analyses of medieval wall paintings from al-Qarawiyyin in Fez(Morocco)[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2022,280:121557.
参考文献 14
PEREZ-RODRIGUEZ J L,ROBADOR M D,CENTENO M A,et al.Wall paintings studied using Raman spectroscopy:a comparative study between various assays of cross sections and external layers[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular & Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2014,120:602-609.
参考文献 15
BELL I M,CLARK R,GIBBS P J.Raman spectroscopic library of natural and synthetic pigments(pre-≈1850 AD)[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,1997,53(12):2159-2179.
参考文献 16
李蔓,王丽琴,夏寅,等.铜绿颜料的光谱分析及稳定性研究[J].光谱学与光谱分析,2013,33(12):3293-3297.LI Man,WANG Liqin,XIA Yin,et al.Research on the spectral analysis and stability of copper green[J].Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis,2013,33(12):3293-3297.
参考文献 17
吴大鞾.法海寺沥粉贴金技法艺术特点解析[D].北京:中央美术学院,2015.WU Daxue.Analysis of the artistic characteristics of embossed painting and gilding craft in Fahai Temple[D].Beijing:Central Academy of Fine Arts,2015.
参考文献 18
罗曦芸,杜一平,沈美华,等.红外光谱在纤维质文物材料鉴别中的应用研究[J].光谱学与光谱分析,2015,35(1):60-64.LUO Xiyun,DU Yiping,SHEN Meihua,et al.Investigation of fibrous cultural materials by infrared spectroscopy[J].Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis,2015,35(1):60-64.
参考文献 19
吕淑贤.中国古籍纸张老化特性研究[J].古籍保护研究,2020(2):73-88.LYU Shuxian.A research on the characteristics of Chinese ancient paper aging[J].Ancient Book Protection Research,2020(2):73-88.
参考文献 20
姚娜.基于热裂解气相色谱质谱法的明清时期纸质文物科学研究[D].北京:北京科技大学,2022.YAO Na.Scientific research on paper cultural relics in the Ming and Qing Dynasties based on pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry[D].Beijing:University of Science and Technology Beijing,2022.
参考文献 21
高燕,杨秋颖,孙满利,等.陕西蓝田水陆庵彩绘泥塑颜料分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2022,34(1):97-108.GAO Yan,YANG Qiuying,SUN Manli,et al.Study of the pigments of sculptures in Shuilu Temple[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2022,34(1):97-108.
参考文献 22
张紫月.重庆大足石刻宝顶山圆觉洞及北山孔雀明王窟彩绘工艺研究[D].北京:中央民族大学,2020.ZHANG Ziyue.Research on the painting technology of Yuanjue Cave in Baoding Mountain and Peacock Ming Wang Grottoes in Chongqing Dazu Stone Carvings[D].Beijing:Minzu University of China,2020.
参考文献 23
刘梦雨.清代官修匠作则例所见彩画作颜料研究[D].北京:清华大学,2019.LIU Mengyu.Research on pigments for decorative polychrome painting in official handicraft regulations and precedents of Qing Dynasty[D].Beijing:Tsinghua University,2019.
参考文献 24
胡可佳,白崇斌,马琳燕,等.陕西安康紫阳北五省会馆壁画颜料分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2013,25(4):65-72.HU Kejia,BAI Chongbin,MA Linyan,et al.A study on the pigments on murals of the Five Northern Provinces’ Assembly Hall in Ankang[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2013,25(4):65-72.
参考文献 25
兰小迪.镇闽将军出巡图壁画制作材料与病害成因分析[D].北京:中央民族大学,2020.LAN Xiaodi.Analysis of the materials and causes of diseases for the picture of Zhenmin Generals’ royal progress[D].Beijing:Minzu University of China,2020.
参考文献 26
王新磊.清代蔚县工商业初探——以蔚县古城财神庙碑刻为基础[J].保定学院学报,2017,30(1):19-24.WANG Xinlei.Preliminary study on Yu County industry and commerce in the Qing Dynasty:based on the study of Yu County’s Mammon Temple stone tablets[J].Journal of Baoding University,2017,30(1):19-24.
参考文献 27
王进玉,王进聪.敦煌石窟铜绿颜料的应用与来源[J].敦煌研究,2002(4):23-28.WANG Jinyu,WANG Jincong.Application and source of Dunhuang Grottoes green pigment[J].Dunhuang Research,2002(4):23-28.
参考文献 28
李蔓.铜绿颜料的分析探究[D].西安:西北大学,2013.LI Man.Analysis and exploration of copper green[D].Xi’an:Northwest University,2013.
参考文献 29
李最雄.敦煌壁画中胶结材料老化初探[J].敦煌研究,1990(3):75-89,120.LI Zuixiong.A study on the ageing of the cementing material in Dunhuang murals[J].Dunhuang Research,1990(3):75-89,120.
参考文献 30
李越,刘梦雨.慈宁宫花园临溪亭天花彩画材料工艺的科学研究[J].故宫博物院院刊,2018(6):45-63,159.LI Yue,LIU Mengyu.A study of the materials and techniques used in the polychrome ceiling decoration of the Linxi Pavilion in the garden of the Cining Palace[J].Palace Museum Journal,2018(6):45-63,159.
参考文献 31
李蔓,夏寅.碱式氯化铜颜料性质初探[J].中国文物科学研究,2019(3):69-74.LI Man,XIA Yin.Preliminary study on the properties of the basic copper chloride pigment[J].China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research,2019(3):69-74.
参考文献 32
成小林,杨琴.五种含氯铜合金腐蚀产物的拉曼光谱及扫描电镜的分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2018,30(4):26-33.CHENG Xiaolin,YANG Qin.Study of five chloride-containing corrosion products from copper and bronze artifacts using Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2018,30(4):26-33.
参考文献 33
河北省气象局.河北省气候公报2020年[R].石家庄:河北省气象局,2020.Hebei Meteorological Service.Hebei Province Climate Bulletin 2020[R].Shijiazhuang:Hebei Meteorological Service,2020.
参考文献 34
潘兆橹.结晶学及矿物学[M].北京:地质出版社,1994:22-23.PAN Zhaolu.Crystallography and mineralogy[M].Beijing:Geology Press,1994:22-23.
参考文献 35
王荣,陈建明,聂菲.长沙地区战国中期至西汉中期漆工艺中的矿物材料使用初探[J].湖南省博物馆馆刊,2014:235-254.WANG Rong,CHEN Jianming,NIE Fei.A preliminary study of the mineral materials used in lacquer technology in the Changsha region from the mid-Warring States Period to the mid-Western Han Dynasty[J].Journal of Hunan Provincial Museum,2014:235-254.
参考文献 36
朱向东,朱华俊.山西古建筑装饰中金饰工艺的初步研究[J].文物世界,2008(6):36-38,42.ZHU Xiangdong,ZHU Huajun.Preliminary study on gold ornament technology in Shanxi ancient building decoration[J].World of Antiquity,2008(6):36-38,42.
参考文献 37
左丽阳.山西传统贴金工艺探究——基于贴金工匠口述的研究[D].太原:山西大学,2014.ZUO Liyang.The investigation of Shanxi traditional gilding techniques:based on the oral of gilding craftmen[D].Taiyuan:Shanxi University,2014.
参考文献 38
王文彬.我国传统壁画的材料工艺及应用[J].美术研究,1987(2):40-53.WANG Wenbin.Materials and techniques used for traditional murals in China and their applications[J].Art Research,1987(2):40-53.
目录contents

    摘要

    故城寺释迦殿建于明正德二年(1507年),其殿内的水陆壁画将儒、道、佛三教融汇在一起,是研究中国绘画艺术及宗教思想演进变化的重要实物资料。通过对壁画结构特征和材质组成等综合分析,壁画结构的层位关系依次是:支撑体→粗泥层→细泥层→底色层→颜料层→沥粉贴金,北壁壁画在底色层上依次是底稿层、贴纸层(纸张)和颜料层;细泥层以黄土、石粒和动物纤维为主。壁画的红色和橙色颜料为朱砂,粉色由铅丹和朱砂混合调色而成,黑色为炭黑,蓝色为普鲁士蓝。绿色为羟氯铜矿,并有少量辉铜矿;这在壁画中是较为少见的。沥粉贴金中所用金箔为Au-Ag-Pb合金,即大赤金。结合普鲁士蓝颜料在中国出现及贸易的时间,推测“绘制年代应早于清道光二十九年(1849年)”这一说法更为合适,即壁画绘制于乾隆中后期(1760—1770)至道光二十九年(1849年)之间。

    Abstract

    The Shui-Lu wall paintings, a kind of religion-themed wall painting in North China, at Gucheng Temple is located on the walls of an early 16th century building—Sakyamuni Hall—of the temple. The theme of the paintings integrates three religions—Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism—making the paintings an important case for the study of the history of Chinese painting art and the development of local religions in North China.

    However, the period of the paintings still remains controversial. There are two hypotheses: one tells that the paintings were finished in the same year of Sakyamuni Hall in 1507 (the 2nd year of the Zhengde period of the Ming Dynasty), which is referred to in a few publications; the other believes they were painted between the 1820s and 1840s (the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty), particularly earlier than 1849 (the 29th year of the Daoguang period) according to the records of the donors and related genealogies and inscriptions.

    We studied the craft and materials of the Shui-Lu wall paintings at Gucheng Temple. The result also contributes to the periodization of the paintings together with historical records. Based on onsite investigations, material analysis of the paintings was carried out using section microscopy, Raman spectrometry (Raman), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and infrared spectrometry (IR).

    As a result of the analysis, the structures and material compositions of the paintings were clarified. The structural layers of the paintings from inside to outside are core support, coarse plaster layer, fine plaster layer, white ground layer, paint layer and embossed painting and gilding craft. The difference is that the painting on the north wall consists of sketch layer, sticker layer (paper) and paint layer in turn outwards on the white ground layer. The coarse plaster is dominated by loess and wheat-straw, and the fine plaster is mainly composed of clay, pebble (0.5~2 mm) and animal fibers—usually, small pebbles are rarely seen in the fine plaster of painting.

    The pigments used on the paintings are mostly minerals. The red and orange ones are cinnabar, the pink one is mixed with red lead and cinnabar, the black one is carbon black, and the blue one is Prussian blue. The green pigment is botallackite, with a small amount of chalcocite, which was rarely found on wall paintings in China. The gold foil used in the embossed painting and gilding craft is Au-Ag-Pb alloy, with Au accounting for 75.19%, namely Dachijin. Using IR, the material of the sticker layer in the painting on the north wall was identified as paper, which was made with the addition of ceramic clay; the pigments used were consistent with those on other walls. The presence of the sticker layer beneath the paint layer of wall paintings is an extremely rare phenomenon, and few related reports are available. Considering that Prussian blue was introduced and exported into China during 1760s to 1770s (the mid and late Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty), and Yuxian County, where Gucheng Temple is located, was a local commercial hub from mid-17th century, it is believed that the paintings were finished between 1760s and 1849 (from the mid and late Qianlong period to the 29th year of the Daoguang period).

    In this study, material analysis was innovatively applied to the periodization of wall paintings. It not only describes a scientific methodology to estimate the period of East-Asian wall paintings, but also contributes to the understanding of the Shui-Lu wall paintings of Gucheng Temple for its conservation and restoration. The outcomes of this study provide reference about local wall paintings’ craft and materials in Yuxian County, and also help to comprehend the social and technical development in pre-modern North China.

  • 0 引言

  • 蔚县,位于河北省张家口市,是国家历史文化名城,拥有二十多处全国重点文物保护单位。古称蔚州,历史上是“燕云十六州”之一; 地处恒山、燕山与太行山交汇处,地形复杂,地势险要,处于内外长城之间,是连接张北高原与华北平原之间的险关要塞,有很高的战略地位,历来是兵家必争之地[1]。蔚县在明洪武四年隶属山西大同府,洪武七年置蔚州卫属山西行都司,宣德五年改属万全都司; 清初时隶属山西大同府,康熙三十二年改为蔚州卫为蔚县; 雍正六年改属直隶宣化府[2]

  • 故城寺位于蔚县宋家庄镇大固城村东北,释迦殿为该寺仅有的一处明代遗存(图1),其背檩上的墨书木匾题记记载该寺始建于明正德二年,其确切的建造纪年为鉴定同期建筑提供了标尺[3]。2013年被国务院公布为第七批全国重点文物保护单位。水陆画[4],是举办水陆法会必须用到的神祇鬼灵图像。释迦殿内四壁均有壁画,所绘的水陆壁画较为规范化和世俗化,把儒、道、佛三教融汇在一起[5],体现出三教合一的宗旨,是研究中国绘画艺术及宗教思想演进变化的重要实物资料。

  • 图1 故城寺释迦殿

  • Fig.1 Sakyamuni Hall of Gucheng Temple

  • 目前,关于蔚县故城寺壁画制作材料和工艺方面的研究可参考的文献较少,仅有内容和年代初考,至今尚未有对故城寺壁画材质和工艺研究的相关报道。而且,关于故城寺壁画的绘制年代,说法不一。一种说法是明正德二年,建筑大殿脊檩下的木匾上有题记:“时大明国山西大同府蔚州东乡故城里故城寺德俊于正德贰年岁丁卯季秋吉立”,即壁画的绘制年代和建筑年代大致相同[6],这种说法存在于较多文献中。另一说法是壁画绘制于清道光前期,根据壁画中供养人的名字、《韩氏家谱》《重修碑记》(郑家庄峰山寺清道光二十九年)和《重修庙碑记》(财神庙大清道光六年)推测其壁画的绘制年代应早于清道光二十九年(1849)[7]。基于其独特价值和保护修复的需求,在对故城寺壁画进行现状调查的基础上,利用多种方法[8-9]就壁画材料及工艺展开了有针对性地分析研究,并从材料角度对壁画绘制年代进行探究。

  • 1 壁画现状

  • 1.1 壁画绘制内容

  • 故城寺释迦殿现存的水陆壁画面积共计79.6 m2。壁画中,北壁两侧绘“十大明王”像,东、西、南壁绘有诸天梵王、日月星宿、五岳大帝、四海龙王、道教祖师、天曹地府、各司判官、往古帝王将相士绅等各类人物(539位),皆面向“十大明王”,呈礼佛状,形成一幅盛大的水陆道场图。壁画共有112组,其中东西两壁各有44组画面,南壁的东西两侧各为12组。每组都有榜题和供养人条框,供养人条框内填写有供养人的有67组,可分辨清楚的有62组。通过对各画面的神祇进行研究并对比《天地冥阳水陆仪文》[10],发现故城寺壁画出现仪文外神祇及缺失神祇较多,且有地位等级排列错误的现象[11]

  • 1.2 壁画价值评估

  • 故城寺是蔚县现存一座独具特色的寺院。该寺所用“故城”与该村建村的起源关系紧密相连,对研究辽代故城有参考价值。该寺释迦殿为蔚县明代重要文化遗存,并有确切纪年,对鉴定同期建筑提供了标尺。壁画内容题材之丰富、画幅人物之众多、保存状况之完好,在全国不多见,非常珍贵。故城寺,凝聚了一方的财富智慧,壁画上有众多的榜题及供养人,多记附近村堡,商肆所捐银两,是研究研究明清壁画和当时社会生活、民俗、艺术等不可多得的实物资料,具有重要的历史价值。

  • 故城寺壁画体现了蔚县当时壁画绘制的工艺技法,反映了当时的工艺发展水平; 壁画中所使用的颜料或染料,为当时经济交流的研究提供依据; 对研究我国明清时期民间壁画发展和壁画保护具有重要的科学价值。壁画无论是在人物表情的刻画还是色彩的运用方面,都有民间绘画的特征,属于典型的民间绘画艺术,具有高度的艺术价值和典型的时代特色; 反映了宋代以后壁画多由民间画师所绘而非文人画家,体现了明清时期民间文化的丰富与繁盛。明清时期寺院水陆画主要是以组为单位的构图形式,而故城寺释迦殿水陆壁画的构图形式则以单幅为单位,继承了卷轴水陆画的构图形式。这记载了佛教水陆法会举办地点由多使用卷轴水陆画的室外向使用水陆壁画的室内转变的过程,反映了明清时期佛教宗教仪式的发展与变化。综上所述,故城寺释迦殿水陆壁画反映了当时民间文化的发展与宗教仪轨的变化,体现了明清时期社会与人文的变迁,具有重要的社会人文价值。

  • 1.3 壁画保存现状

  • 释迦殿壁画保存状况略差,存在大面积空鼓和贯穿性裂缝,严重影响壁画安全。而且,水渍、泥渍和颜料层脱落亦是其主要病害,另外还有地仗脱落、划痕、涂写、覆盖、动物损害、人为修复和龟裂等现象。经统计,故城寺东壁壁画的病害面积为136 114 cm2,占比50.48%; 南壁东侧壁画的病害面积为15 532 cm2,占比25.24%; 南壁西侧壁画的病害面积为61 951 cm2,占比102.02%; 西壁壁画的病害面积为284 095 cm2,占比104.60%; 北壁西侧壁画的病害面积为84 270 cm2,占比129.43%; 北壁东侧壁画的病害面积为65 583 cm2,占比97.68%。释迦殿在近年来得到修缮,因而建筑未发现明显的沉降和墙体倾斜问题。但是,壁画的空鼓和裂缝亟待进行临时支护等抢救性加固防护。

  • 2 壁画制作工艺研究

  • 2.1 实验样品

  • 本次研究针对壁画特点,在遵循文物保护原则的前提下,在壁画破损处有代表性地对其进行微量取样,取样位置如图2,样品具体信息如表1所示。此次共采集样品19个,其中颜料样品有15个,样品规格≤1 mm×1 mm。随后在实验室内通过剖面显微、拉曼光谱(Raman)、扫描电镜-能谱(SEM-EDS)、X射线衍射(XRD)和红外光谱(IR)等方法分析壁画的颜料和制作工艺,为壁画的保护和价值研究提供科学依据。

  • 图2 取样位置图

  • Fig.2 Sampling locations

  • 表1 壁画样品表

  • Table1 Information of wall painting samples

  • (续表1)

  • 2.2 分析方法

  • 1)剖面分析。使用高渗透环氧树脂镶嵌样品,树脂∶固化剂=3∶1,搅拌30 s,均匀混合。样品用微型夹固定,混合后的树脂倒入样品中,并放入PolyVoc5真空镶嵌机中抽真空避免产生气泡。待树脂凝固后,使用Mecatech 334型自动磨抛机对样品进行磨制和抛光,用LEICA DM 4000型光学显微镜观察样品剖面。

  • 2)Raman测试。使用共焦显微拉曼光谱仪分析颜料物相,设备为:RenishawinVia型(英国雷尼绍公司); 激发光波长为325 nm、532 nm和785 nm,配备5×,10×,20×,50×,50 L和100×徕卡物镜。光谱分辨率≤1.0 cm-1,横向分辨率<0.5 μm,纵向分辨率<1.5 μm。

  • 3)SEM-EDS测试。对样品进行形貌观察和元素分析。使用设备为FEI Quanta650型环境扫描电子显微镜(SEM)和EDAX公司的APPLLO-X型能谱仪(EDS),实验条件:高真空模式,工作电压为15 kV、25 kV,二次电子及背散射模式,能谱扫描时间为30 s,工作距离为10 mm。

  • 4)XRD测试。对地仗层和部分颜料样品进行物相分析,使用设备为德国Bruker公司的D8 ADVANCE型X射线衍射光谱仪(XRD),条件参数为:辐射源为Cu/Kα,波长为15.4 nm,管压40 kV,管流40 mA,扫描速度为5°/min,扫描范围为5~70°。

  • 5)IR测试。测试对象为贴纸层样品,以确定是否为同一类纸张。使用设备为Thermo Scientific公司的Nicolet iN10 MX显微红外光谱仪(IR),实验条件:波数扫描范围为4 000~650 cm-1,测量区域可达微米级(5 μm)。

  • 2.3 壁画层位结构和工艺

  • 结合现场勘察和剖面显微分析,释迦殿壁画的层位结构有两种形式。形式一,分布于东壁、西壁和南壁,以东壁为例(图3a和图3c),层位关系依次是支撑体→粗地仗层→细地仗层→底色层→颜料层; 粗地仗层较厚,以黄土和麦秆纤维为主; 细地仗层厚度为1~1.5 cm,以黄土、卵石和动物纤维为主; 底色层为白色,厚150 μm左右; 颜料层厚为20 μm。形式二,分布于北壁,以北壁东侧为例(图3b和图3d),层位关系依次是支撑体→粗泥层→细泥层→底色层→底稿层→贴纸层→颜料层; 粗地仗层、细地仗层和底色层均和形式一相同,而贴纸层厚约为10 μm,表面沥粉贴金的金层仅2 μm厚。

  • 显微照片表明,粗地仗层中麦秆纤维的宽度约在1~2 mm,长度1~3 cm不等。细地仗层中有大量的卵石和纤维,卵石呈椭球状,粒径多在0.5~2 mm; 纤维非常细,且含量极多,长度基本在5 mm以上,因而细地仗层结构致密。地仗层中纤维的使用有利于壁画地仗层附着和长期保存[12]。使用XRD对其物相进行分析,细地仗层的主要成分为石英、碳酸钙和白云石,其中石英为土的主要成分之一,碳酸钙和白云石应是卵石的主要成分; 粗地仗层的主要物相为石英和方解石,即粗泥层除了土外,还添加有石灰。殿内形式一和形式二壁画的粗地仗层和细地仗层在材料和工艺上均一致。

  • 图3 壁画结构

  • Fig.3 Structure of wall paintings

  • 此外,壁画的底色层为白色,EDS表明其主要元素组成为C、O、Ca,其质量分数分别为18.36%、50.22%和25.37%,推测其应该为CaCO3; 拉曼光谱中发现有1 090 cm-1的特征峰,即底色层中含有方解石; XRD分析显示其主要物相为碳酸钙(CaCO3)。因此,底色层为石灰涂刷形成的碳酸钙。

  • 2.4 东壁颜料层

  • 壁画颜料以现场采集的微量样品为研究对象,先采用拉曼光谱仪对不同颜色所用颜料进行定性分析,本次选取的代表性颜色有红、蓝、黑、绿、白、粉、橙等。红色和橙色颜料的特征峰为254、289、346 cm-1,即为红色和橙色颜料为朱砂[13]。粉色颜料拉曼光谱中122、155、316、393、550 cm-1为铅丹[14]的特征峰,258 cm-1为朱砂的特征峰,即粉色的显色物质有铅丹和朱砂; 因样品采集量过少,暂无法确定是否是“章丹打底,银朱盖面”的工艺,后续在有条件的情况下将继续分析。黑色颜料的特征峰为1 288、1 599 cm-1,即黑色颜料为炭黑。

  • 蓝色颜料中EDS显示(图4)其主要组成元素有:C、N、O、Al、Ca、Fe。拉曼特征峰284、541、2 094、2 157 cm-1(图4b)与普鲁士蓝[15](Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3)的峰值对应较好,即蓝色颜料为普鲁士蓝。

  • 对绿色颜料进行扫描电镜能谱分析(图5a),发现其主要组成元素为:C、O、Si、S、Cl、Ca、Cu,其中Cu为显色元素。对其进行拉曼分析(图5b),发现114、151、171、246、398、441、495、888 cm-1为羟氯铜矿[16]的拉曼特征峰; 对其进行微区X射线衍射分析(图5c),发现其显色物质为羟氯铜矿[Botallackite,Cu2(OH)3Cl],且有部分的Cu2S(辉铜矿,Chalcocite)存在,这和SEM-EDS、拉曼光谱的分析一致; 即绿色颜料为碱式氯化铜,物相为羟氯铜矿。

  • 图4 蓝色颜料分析结果

  • Fig.4 Analysis results of the blue pigment

  • 图5 绿色颜料分析结果

  • Fig.5 Analysis results of the green pigment

  • 对金层进行扫描电镜-能谱分析(图6),发现其主要组成元素有:C、O、Ag、Ca、Au、Pb,C、O应为胶结物的主要成分,即有机物; Ag和Au的存在表明沥粉贴金工艺中的金箔不是纯金,可能存在金银错[17]的工艺。

  • 图6 金层元素含量

  • Fig.6 Element contents of the gold layer

  • 2.5 北壁东侧贴纸层

  • 释迦殿北壁壁画制作工艺与其他壁画有所不同,其区别在于壁画的颜料层和底色层之间多了一层带有墨线的贴纸层。贴纸层较为柔软,韧性较好,在显微镜下可清晰看到细长的纤维状(图7)。对该贴纸层进行显微红外分析,结果显示红色贴纸(GCS-12)和粉色贴纸(GCS-18)的红外光谱图极为相似,3 405 cm-1表征纤维素分子内羟基O—H伸缩振动谱带,1 620 cm-1表征吸附水的吸收峰,1 434 cm-1表征纤维素—CH2弯曲振动和剪切振动的吸收峰,1 320 cm-1表征纤维素和半纤维—CH弯曲振动和伸缩振动[18],1 006 cm-1表征纤维素和半纤维素中C—O伸缩振动[19]; 因此颜料层下方的薄层为纸张。

  • 在扫描电镜下对贴纸类样品进行观察并测定元素含量(表2)。红色贴纸(GCS-12)样品中,Area_1(红色)和Area_3(黑色线条)区域的S和Hg含量较高,经拉曼验证红色为朱砂,黑色为炭黑,且黑色线条下有红色层; 而Area_2(白色线条)区域的O和Pb含量较高,推测可能为白色的含铅化合物。黄色贴纸(GCS-16)、蓝色贴纸(GCS-17)和粉色贴纸(GCS-18)中的显色元素分别为Pb、Fe和Pb,拉曼表征依此是铅丹、普鲁士蓝和铅丹。金色贴纸(GCS-19)中的“其他”为Au和Ag,分别为29.31%和2.63%。此外,在EDS元素分析中,除显色元素外,Al和Si元素含量明显偏高,如GCS-17中两元素的质量分数分别为13.43%和12.94%,这表明纸张在制造时应添加有瓷土(Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O)[20]

  • 综上,对故城寺释迦殿壁画中所用颜料的种类进行统计,如表3所示,基本上都是古代壁画中常用的颜料; 至于北壁东侧贴纸壁画的绘制时间还有待继续考证。

  • 图7 红色贴纸(GCS-12)显微照片和贴纸层红外光谱图

  • Fig.7 Micromorphology of GCS-12 and IR spectra of sticker samples

  • 表2 贴纸类样品的扫描电镜能谱数据

  • Table2 SEM-EDS data of sticker samples

  • 表3 壁画颜料样品的物相分析结果

  • Table3 Raman phase analysis results of wall painting pigment samples

  • 3 讨论

  • 释迦殿壁画中所用的蓝色颜料均为普鲁士蓝。普鲁士蓝(Prussian Blue),属于人工合成颜料[21],化学式为Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3,最初是由德国人达斯巴赫于1704年在柏林意外中发现的蓝色颜料[22]; 18世纪日本也开始进口这种颜料。《清代官修匠作则例所见彩画作颜料研究》[23]一文对普鲁士蓝在中国的出现、贸易、生产与应用的轨迹进行研究,通过梳理确定普鲁士蓝大约在乾隆中后期(1760—1770年)开始进入中国,最初由英国东印度公司贩运到广州出售,到乾隆末期(1793年左右),在中国国内已经有了相当普遍的应用; 至19世纪初时,普鲁士蓝的应用就更加广泛了。目前普鲁士蓝在国内文物检测中发现的案例并不多,部分用于建筑彩画和外销油画,在陕西紫阳北五省会馆壁画[24](道光至同治年间)和镇闽将军出巡图壁画[25](清中晚期)中有所使用。因此,对于前文中提到的两种壁画绘制年代的说法,结合普鲁士蓝颜料在中国出现及贸易的时间,加之蔚县在清代是重要的工商业市镇和商路枢纽[26],笔者认为“绘制年代应早于清道光二十九年(1849)”这一说法更为合适。

  • 羟氯铜矿[Botallackite,Cu2(OH)3Cl],为单斜晶系的碱式氯化铜,和氯铜矿、斜氯铜矿为同分异构体,称为铜绿颜料。碱式氯化铜在我国古代极为常用,其使用范围极广。敦煌石窟壁画和彩塑中,北朝时期氯铜矿石已成为其绿色的主要颜料; 五代至元代,氯铜矿颜料的使用远远超过石绿,且氯铜矿为人工制造的[27]。在《神仙养生秘术》《墨娥小录》《天工开物》和《新修本草》等[28]古籍文献中俱有提到碱式氯化铜的合成工艺,表明古代有极为成熟的合成工艺。目前,我国氯铜矿的天然资源较为匮乏,仅在新疆地区发现有氯铜矿和副氯铜矿,因而古代壁画和彩画中所使用的大多为合成氯铜矿。在对彩绘的已有研究中,羟氯铜矿存在较少,其中炳灵寺130窟壁画[29]和清昌陵、故宫慈宁宫临溪亭[30]与寿康宫的建筑彩画中为羟氯铜矿。相较于氯铜矿,羟氯铜矿的稳定性略差[31],得以保留下来需要干燥的环境[32]。但故城寺所处的蔚县地区,年降雨量在400~500 mm[33],并非长期处于干燥环境下,羟氯铜矿的存在原因还有待进一步研究。样品中除含有羟氯铜矿外,还有少量的辉铜矿(Cu2S); 根据古代氯铜矿的制作工艺和模拟实验[28]发现其合成过程不会生成Cu2S。辉铜矿在铜矿床中极为常见,化学组成中含铜量高达79.86%,是很重要的铜矿石矿物[34],常作为火法炼铜的原料之一[35],因此推测辉铜矿应是氯铜矿颜料中的杂质。

  • 沥粉贴金,是我国古代壁画中的传统工艺,突出画面内容并呈现立体感,加之金箔的反光和凸出线条的阴影形成对比使其产生四壁生辉、亮丽富贵的效果[36]。在沥粉干燥之后涂一层金胶油,等到八成干将事先裁剪好的金箔沿着沥粉贴上去,压实[37]。金箔不一定是纯金,将在金中掺入其他金属元素,如Ag、Pb和Cu,因而制成合金; 金箔因含金量不同而呈现不同的色泽,含金90%以上的库金发红色,含金70%以上的大赤金呈黄色[38]。在彩画匠作术语中有“贴两色金”和“贴三色金”的说法。根据图6中Au、Ag和Pb三种金属的含量,经归一化后可得Au在Au-Ag-Pb合金中的含量为75.19%,表明释迦殿沥粉贴金中用的是大赤金,呈黄色。

  • 释迦殿北壁壁画的贴纸工艺较为少见,推测其可能与壁画的内容有关。北壁为“十大明王”,东、西、南壁绘有的各类人物皆面向“十大明王”,呈礼佛状; 以不同的工艺来凸显“十大明王”的地位。目前尚未查到相关资料记载或研究,还有待进一步研究。

  • 4 结论

  • 本研究结合现场调查和古籍文献,综合使用多种分析方法,对故城寺释迦殿壁画的材料和制作工艺进行研究,并对壁画绘制年代进行考证。主要发现和结论总结如下:

  • 1)东壁、西壁和南壁壁画结构的层位关系依次是:支撑体→粗泥层→细泥层→底色层(厚100~150 μm)→颜料层(厚20 μm)→沥粉贴金,金层仅2 μm厚; 北壁则在底色层上依次绘制底稿层、贴纸层(厚10 μm)和颜料层,颜料层外有沥粉贴金。粗泥层以黄土和麦秆为主; 细泥层以黄土、石粒和动物纤维为主,纤维含量较高; 两层之间结合紧密。

  • 2)壁画采用的颜料多为矿物颜料,红色和橙色为朱砂,粉色含铅丹和朱砂,黑色为炭黑。蓝色为普鲁士蓝,绿色为羟氯铜矿[Botallackite,Cu2(OH)3Cl],并有少量杂质辉铜矿; 壁画中使用羟氯铜矿做绿色颜料较为少见。沥粉贴金中所用金箔为Au-Ag-Pb合金,合金中Au占75.19%,即贴金用的是大赤金,呈黄色。北壁贴纸层经红外光谱分析确定为纸张,纸张在制作时添加有瓷土; 所用颜料与其它壁面一致。

  • 3)结合普鲁士蓝颜料在中国出现及贸易的时间,加之蔚县在清代是重要的工商业市镇和商路枢纽,推测“绘制年代应早于清道光二十九年(1849年)”这一说法更为合适,即壁画绘制于乾隆中后期(1760—1770)至道光二十九年(1849年)之间。

  • 对故城寺释迦殿壁画的工艺和材料进行分析,一方面是为了探明其制作工艺,为保护修复提供科学依据; 另一方面,其制作工艺和材料也为清代民间壁画尤其是水陆画的研究提供了不可多得的宝贵材料。目前,该壁画存在不同程度的劣变,空鼓和裂隙极大可能处于活跃和发展状态,相关保护工作亟待展开。

  • 参考文献

    • [1] 王肖艳.蔚县军事堡寨聚落形态研究[D].北京:北京建筑大学,2017.WANG Xiaoyan.The research on form of the defensive fort-type settlements in Yu County[D].Beijing:Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture,2017.

    • [2] 蔚县地方志编纂委员会.蔚县志[M].北京:中国三峡出版社,1995:36-37.Yu County Local Chronicle Compilation Committee.The annals of Yu County[M].Beijing:China Three Gorges Publishing House,1995:36-37.

    • [3] 蔚县博物馆.蔚州寺庙壁画[M].北京:科学出版社,2013:16-37.Yuxian Museum.Temple murals of Yuzhou[M].Beijing:Science Press,2013:16-37.

    • [4] 戴晓云.佛教水陆画研究[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2009:2.DAI Xiaoyun.The study of Buddhist Shui-Lu Painting[M].Beijing:China Social Sciences Press,2009:2.

    • [5] 杨柳,郝建文,张吟.蔚县壁画研究[J].美术观察,2019(2):67-68.YANG Liu,HAO Jianwen,ZHANG Yin.Research on the wall paintings of Yu County[J].Art Observation,2019(2):67-68.

    • [6] 郝建文.蔚县故城寺明代壁画[J].当代人,2010(12):17-21.HAO Jianwen.Ming Dynasty murals of Gucheng Temple in Yu County[J].Contemporary,2010(12):17-21.

    • [7] 杨海勇.蔚县故城寺壁画绘制年代考[J].文物春秋,2016(增刊1):92-94.YANG Haiyong.Research on the drawing age of the murals of Gucheng Temple in Yu County[J].Wenwu Chunqiu,2016(Suppl 1):92-94.

    • [8] 牛贺强,水碧纹,陈章,等.青海瞿昙寺瞿昙殿壁画制作材料与工艺初步分析[J].文物保护与考古科学,2021,33(6):94-105.NIU Heqiang,SHUI Biwen,CHEN Zhang,et al.Preliminary investigation and analysis of the materials and techniques for Qutan Hall wall paintings,Qinghai[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2021,33(6):94-105.

    • [9] MALLETZIDOU L,ZORBA T T,KYRANOUDI M,et al.The dome of Rotunda in Thessaloniki:investigation of a multi-pictorial phase wall painting through analytical methods[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2021,262:120101.

    • [10] 戴晓云.《天地冥阳水陆仪文》对冥道无遮平等思想和水陆程序的继承[J].佛学研究,2019(1):317-331.DAI Xiaoyun.The inheritance of the idea of the equality of the under world and the water and land procedures in the Tiandi Mingyang Shuilu Ritual Text[J].Buddhist Studies,2019(1):317-331.

    • [11] 刘栋.山西现存佛教水陆壁画调查与研究[D].临汾:山西师范大学,2019.LIU Dong.Investigation and research on existing Buddhist water and water mural in Shanxi Province[D].Linfen:Shanxi Normal University,2019.

    • [12] 张尚欣,张卫星,付倩丽,等.秦陵建筑基址壁画材质及制作工艺的初步研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2021,33(6):20-27.ZHANG Shangxin,ZHANG Weixing,FU Qianli,et al.Preliminary study of the materials and techniques of wall painting from affiliated building remains excavated at Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2021,33(6):20-27.

    • [13] FIKRI I,EL AMRAOUI M,HADDAD M,et al.Raman and ATR-FTIR analyses of medieval wall paintings from al-Qarawiyyin in Fez(Morocco)[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2022,280:121557.

    • [14] PEREZ-RODRIGUEZ J L,ROBADOR M D,CENTENO M A,et al.Wall paintings studied using Raman spectroscopy:a comparative study between various assays of cross sections and external layers[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular & Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2014,120:602-609.

    • [15] BELL I M,CLARK R,GIBBS P J.Raman spectroscopic library of natural and synthetic pigments(pre-≈1850 AD)[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,1997,53(12):2159-2179.

    • [16] 李蔓,王丽琴,夏寅,等.铜绿颜料的光谱分析及稳定性研究[J].光谱学与光谱分析,2013,33(12):3293-3297.LI Man,WANG Liqin,XIA Yin,et al.Research on the spectral analysis and stability of copper green[J].Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis,2013,33(12):3293-3297.

    • [17] 吴大鞾.法海寺沥粉贴金技法艺术特点解析[D].北京:中央美术学院,2015.WU Daxue.Analysis of the artistic characteristics of embossed painting and gilding craft in Fahai Temple[D].Beijing:Central Academy of Fine Arts,2015.

    • [18] 罗曦芸,杜一平,沈美华,等.红外光谱在纤维质文物材料鉴别中的应用研究[J].光谱学与光谱分析,2015,35(1):60-64.LUO Xiyun,DU Yiping,SHEN Meihua,et al.Investigation of fibrous cultural materials by infrared spectroscopy[J].Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis,2015,35(1):60-64.

    • [19] 吕淑贤.中国古籍纸张老化特性研究[J].古籍保护研究,2020(2):73-88.LYU Shuxian.A research on the characteristics of Chinese ancient paper aging[J].Ancient Book Protection Research,2020(2):73-88.

    • [20] 姚娜.基于热裂解气相色谱质谱法的明清时期纸质文物科学研究[D].北京:北京科技大学,2022.YAO Na.Scientific research on paper cultural relics in the Ming and Qing Dynasties based on pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry[D].Beijing:University of Science and Technology Beijing,2022.

    • [21] 高燕,杨秋颖,孙满利,等.陕西蓝田水陆庵彩绘泥塑颜料分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2022,34(1):97-108.GAO Yan,YANG Qiuying,SUN Manli,et al.Study of the pigments of sculptures in Shuilu Temple[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2022,34(1):97-108.

    • [22] 张紫月.重庆大足石刻宝顶山圆觉洞及北山孔雀明王窟彩绘工艺研究[D].北京:中央民族大学,2020.ZHANG Ziyue.Research on the painting technology of Yuanjue Cave in Baoding Mountain and Peacock Ming Wang Grottoes in Chongqing Dazu Stone Carvings[D].Beijing:Minzu University of China,2020.

    • [23] 刘梦雨.清代官修匠作则例所见彩画作颜料研究[D].北京:清华大学,2019.LIU Mengyu.Research on pigments for decorative polychrome painting in official handicraft regulations and precedents of Qing Dynasty[D].Beijing:Tsinghua University,2019.

    • [24] 胡可佳,白崇斌,马琳燕,等.陕西安康紫阳北五省会馆壁画颜料分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2013,25(4):65-72.HU Kejia,BAI Chongbin,MA Linyan,et al.A study on the pigments on murals of the Five Northern Provinces’ Assembly Hall in Ankang[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2013,25(4):65-72.

    • [25] 兰小迪.镇闽将军出巡图壁画制作材料与病害成因分析[D].北京:中央民族大学,2020.LAN Xiaodi.Analysis of the materials and causes of diseases for the picture of Zhenmin Generals’ royal progress[D].Beijing:Minzu University of China,2020.

    • [26] 王新磊.清代蔚县工商业初探——以蔚县古城财神庙碑刻为基础[J].保定学院学报,2017,30(1):19-24.WANG Xinlei.Preliminary study on Yu County industry and commerce in the Qing Dynasty:based on the study of Yu County’s Mammon Temple stone tablets[J].Journal of Baoding University,2017,30(1):19-24.

    • [27] 王进玉,王进聪.敦煌石窟铜绿颜料的应用与来源[J].敦煌研究,2002(4):23-28.WANG Jinyu,WANG Jincong.Application and source of Dunhuang Grottoes green pigment[J].Dunhuang Research,2002(4):23-28.

    • [28] 李蔓.铜绿颜料的分析探究[D].西安:西北大学,2013.LI Man.Analysis and exploration of copper green[D].Xi’an:Northwest University,2013.

    • [29] 李最雄.敦煌壁画中胶结材料老化初探[J].敦煌研究,1990(3):75-89,120.LI Zuixiong.A study on the ageing of the cementing material in Dunhuang murals[J].Dunhuang Research,1990(3):75-89,120.

    • [30] 李越,刘梦雨.慈宁宫花园临溪亭天花彩画材料工艺的科学研究[J].故宫博物院院刊,2018(6):45-63,159.LI Yue,LIU Mengyu.A study of the materials and techniques used in the polychrome ceiling decoration of the Linxi Pavilion in the garden of the Cining Palace[J].Palace Museum Journal,2018(6):45-63,159.

    • [31] 李蔓,夏寅.碱式氯化铜颜料性质初探[J].中国文物科学研究,2019(3):69-74.LI Man,XIA Yin.Preliminary study on the properties of the basic copper chloride pigment[J].China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research,2019(3):69-74.

    • [32] 成小林,杨琴.五种含氯铜合金腐蚀产物的拉曼光谱及扫描电镜的分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2018,30(4):26-33.CHENG Xiaolin,YANG Qin.Study of five chloride-containing corrosion products from copper and bronze artifacts using Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2018,30(4):26-33.

    • [33] 河北省气象局.河北省气候公报2020年[R].石家庄:河北省气象局,2020.Hebei Meteorological Service.Hebei Province Climate Bulletin 2020[R].Shijiazhuang:Hebei Meteorological Service,2020.

    • [34] 潘兆橹.结晶学及矿物学[M].北京:地质出版社,1994:22-23.PAN Zhaolu.Crystallography and mineralogy[M].Beijing:Geology Press,1994:22-23.

    • [35] 王荣,陈建明,聂菲.长沙地区战国中期至西汉中期漆工艺中的矿物材料使用初探[J].湖南省博物馆馆刊,2014:235-254.WANG Rong,CHEN Jianming,NIE Fei.A preliminary study of the mineral materials used in lacquer technology in the Changsha region from the mid-Warring States Period to the mid-Western Han Dynasty[J].Journal of Hunan Provincial Museum,2014:235-254.

    • [36] 朱向东,朱华俊.山西古建筑装饰中金饰工艺的初步研究[J].文物世界,2008(6):36-38,42.ZHU Xiangdong,ZHU Huajun.Preliminary study on gold ornament technology in Shanxi ancient building decoration[J].World of Antiquity,2008(6):36-38,42.

    • [37] 左丽阳.山西传统贴金工艺探究——基于贴金工匠口述的研究[D].太原:山西大学,2014.ZUO Liyang.The investigation of Shanxi traditional gilding techniques:based on the oral of gilding craftmen[D].Taiyuan:Shanxi University,2014.

    • [38] 王文彬.我国传统壁画的材料工艺及应用[J].美术研究,1987(2):40-53.WANG Wenbin.Materials and techniques used for traditional murals in China and their applications[J].Art Research,1987(2):40-53.

  • 参考文献

    • [1] 王肖艳.蔚县军事堡寨聚落形态研究[D].北京:北京建筑大学,2017.WANG Xiaoyan.The research on form of the defensive fort-type settlements in Yu County[D].Beijing:Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture,2017.

    • [2] 蔚县地方志编纂委员会.蔚县志[M].北京:中国三峡出版社,1995:36-37.Yu County Local Chronicle Compilation Committee.The annals of Yu County[M].Beijing:China Three Gorges Publishing House,1995:36-37.

    • [3] 蔚县博物馆.蔚州寺庙壁画[M].北京:科学出版社,2013:16-37.Yuxian Museum.Temple murals of Yuzhou[M].Beijing:Science Press,2013:16-37.

    • [4] 戴晓云.佛教水陆画研究[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2009:2.DAI Xiaoyun.The study of Buddhist Shui-Lu Painting[M].Beijing:China Social Sciences Press,2009:2.

    • [5] 杨柳,郝建文,张吟.蔚县壁画研究[J].美术观察,2019(2):67-68.YANG Liu,HAO Jianwen,ZHANG Yin.Research on the wall paintings of Yu County[J].Art Observation,2019(2):67-68.

    • [6] 郝建文.蔚县故城寺明代壁画[J].当代人,2010(12):17-21.HAO Jianwen.Ming Dynasty murals of Gucheng Temple in Yu County[J].Contemporary,2010(12):17-21.

    • [7] 杨海勇.蔚县故城寺壁画绘制年代考[J].文物春秋,2016(增刊1):92-94.YANG Haiyong.Research on the drawing age of the murals of Gucheng Temple in Yu County[J].Wenwu Chunqiu,2016(Suppl 1):92-94.

    • [8] 牛贺强,水碧纹,陈章,等.青海瞿昙寺瞿昙殿壁画制作材料与工艺初步分析[J].文物保护与考古科学,2021,33(6):94-105.NIU Heqiang,SHUI Biwen,CHEN Zhang,et al.Preliminary investigation and analysis of the materials and techniques for Qutan Hall wall paintings,Qinghai[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2021,33(6):94-105.

    • [9] MALLETZIDOU L,ZORBA T T,KYRANOUDI M,et al.The dome of Rotunda in Thessaloniki:investigation of a multi-pictorial phase wall painting through analytical methods[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2021,262:120101.

    • [10] 戴晓云.《天地冥阳水陆仪文》对冥道无遮平等思想和水陆程序的继承[J].佛学研究,2019(1):317-331.DAI Xiaoyun.The inheritance of the idea of the equality of the under world and the water and land procedures in the Tiandi Mingyang Shuilu Ritual Text[J].Buddhist Studies,2019(1):317-331.

    • [11] 刘栋.山西现存佛教水陆壁画调查与研究[D].临汾:山西师范大学,2019.LIU Dong.Investigation and research on existing Buddhist water and water mural in Shanxi Province[D].Linfen:Shanxi Normal University,2019.

    • [12] 张尚欣,张卫星,付倩丽,等.秦陵建筑基址壁画材质及制作工艺的初步研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2021,33(6):20-27.ZHANG Shangxin,ZHANG Weixing,FU Qianli,et al.Preliminary study of the materials and techniques of wall painting from affiliated building remains excavated at Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2021,33(6):20-27.

    • [13] FIKRI I,EL AMRAOUI M,HADDAD M,et al.Raman and ATR-FTIR analyses of medieval wall paintings from al-Qarawiyyin in Fez(Morocco)[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2022,280:121557.

    • [14] PEREZ-RODRIGUEZ J L,ROBADOR M D,CENTENO M A,et al.Wall paintings studied using Raman spectroscopy:a comparative study between various assays of cross sections and external layers[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular & Biomolecular Spectroscopy,2014,120:602-609.

    • [15] BELL I M,CLARK R,GIBBS P J.Raman spectroscopic library of natural and synthetic pigments(pre-≈1850 AD)[J].Spectrochimica Acta Part A:Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,1997,53(12):2159-2179.

    • [16] 李蔓,王丽琴,夏寅,等.铜绿颜料的光谱分析及稳定性研究[J].光谱学与光谱分析,2013,33(12):3293-3297.LI Man,WANG Liqin,XIA Yin,et al.Research on the spectral analysis and stability of copper green[J].Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis,2013,33(12):3293-3297.

    • [17] 吴大鞾.法海寺沥粉贴金技法艺术特点解析[D].北京:中央美术学院,2015.WU Daxue.Analysis of the artistic characteristics of embossed painting and gilding craft in Fahai Temple[D].Beijing:Central Academy of Fine Arts,2015.

    • [18] 罗曦芸,杜一平,沈美华,等.红外光谱在纤维质文物材料鉴别中的应用研究[J].光谱学与光谱分析,2015,35(1):60-64.LUO Xiyun,DU Yiping,SHEN Meihua,et al.Investigation of fibrous cultural materials by infrared spectroscopy[J].Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis,2015,35(1):60-64.

    • [19] 吕淑贤.中国古籍纸张老化特性研究[J].古籍保护研究,2020(2):73-88.LYU Shuxian.A research on the characteristics of Chinese ancient paper aging[J].Ancient Book Protection Research,2020(2):73-88.

    • [20] 姚娜.基于热裂解气相色谱质谱法的明清时期纸质文物科学研究[D].北京:北京科技大学,2022.YAO Na.Scientific research on paper cultural relics in the Ming and Qing Dynasties based on pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry[D].Beijing:University of Science and Technology Beijing,2022.

    • [21] 高燕,杨秋颖,孙满利,等.陕西蓝田水陆庵彩绘泥塑颜料分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2022,34(1):97-108.GAO Yan,YANG Qiuying,SUN Manli,et al.Study of the pigments of sculptures in Shuilu Temple[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2022,34(1):97-108.

    • [22] 张紫月.重庆大足石刻宝顶山圆觉洞及北山孔雀明王窟彩绘工艺研究[D].北京:中央民族大学,2020.ZHANG Ziyue.Research on the painting technology of Yuanjue Cave in Baoding Mountain and Peacock Ming Wang Grottoes in Chongqing Dazu Stone Carvings[D].Beijing:Minzu University of China,2020.

    • [23] 刘梦雨.清代官修匠作则例所见彩画作颜料研究[D].北京:清华大学,2019.LIU Mengyu.Research on pigments for decorative polychrome painting in official handicraft regulations and precedents of Qing Dynasty[D].Beijing:Tsinghua University,2019.

    • [24] 胡可佳,白崇斌,马琳燕,等.陕西安康紫阳北五省会馆壁画颜料分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2013,25(4):65-72.HU Kejia,BAI Chongbin,MA Linyan,et al.A study on the pigments on murals of the Five Northern Provinces’ Assembly Hall in Ankang[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2013,25(4):65-72.

    • [25] 兰小迪.镇闽将军出巡图壁画制作材料与病害成因分析[D].北京:中央民族大学,2020.LAN Xiaodi.Analysis of the materials and causes of diseases for the picture of Zhenmin Generals’ royal progress[D].Beijing:Minzu University of China,2020.

    • [26] 王新磊.清代蔚县工商业初探——以蔚县古城财神庙碑刻为基础[J].保定学院学报,2017,30(1):19-24.WANG Xinlei.Preliminary study on Yu County industry and commerce in the Qing Dynasty:based on the study of Yu County’s Mammon Temple stone tablets[J].Journal of Baoding University,2017,30(1):19-24.

    • [27] 王进玉,王进聪.敦煌石窟铜绿颜料的应用与来源[J].敦煌研究,2002(4):23-28.WANG Jinyu,WANG Jincong.Application and source of Dunhuang Grottoes green pigment[J].Dunhuang Research,2002(4):23-28.

    • [28] 李蔓.铜绿颜料的分析探究[D].西安:西北大学,2013.LI Man.Analysis and exploration of copper green[D].Xi’an:Northwest University,2013.

    • [29] 李最雄.敦煌壁画中胶结材料老化初探[J].敦煌研究,1990(3):75-89,120.LI Zuixiong.A study on the ageing of the cementing material in Dunhuang murals[J].Dunhuang Research,1990(3):75-89,120.

    • [30] 李越,刘梦雨.慈宁宫花园临溪亭天花彩画材料工艺的科学研究[J].故宫博物院院刊,2018(6):45-63,159.LI Yue,LIU Mengyu.A study of the materials and techniques used in the polychrome ceiling decoration of the Linxi Pavilion in the garden of the Cining Palace[J].Palace Museum Journal,2018(6):45-63,159.

    • [31] 李蔓,夏寅.碱式氯化铜颜料性质初探[J].中国文物科学研究,2019(3):69-74.LI Man,XIA Yin.Preliminary study on the properties of the basic copper chloride pigment[J].China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research,2019(3):69-74.

    • [32] 成小林,杨琴.五种含氯铜合金腐蚀产物的拉曼光谱及扫描电镜的分析研究[J].文物保护与考古科学,2018,30(4):26-33.CHENG Xiaolin,YANG Qin.Study of five chloride-containing corrosion products from copper and bronze artifacts using Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy[J].Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,2018,30(4):26-33.

    • [33] 河北省气象局.河北省气候公报2020年[R].石家庄:河北省气象局,2020.Hebei Meteorological Service.Hebei Province Climate Bulletin 2020[R].Shijiazhuang:Hebei Meteorological Service,2020.

    • [34] 潘兆橹.结晶学及矿物学[M].北京:地质出版社,1994:22-23.PAN Zhaolu.Crystallography and mineralogy[M].Beijing:Geology Press,1994:22-23.

    • [35] 王荣,陈建明,聂菲.长沙地区战国中期至西汉中期漆工艺中的矿物材料使用初探[J].湖南省博物馆馆刊,2014:235-254.WANG Rong,CHEN Jianming,NIE Fei.A preliminary study of the mineral materials used in lacquer technology in the Changsha region from the mid-Warring States Period to the mid-Western Han Dynasty[J].Journal of Hunan Provincial Museum,2014:235-254.

    • [36] 朱向东,朱华俊.山西古建筑装饰中金饰工艺的初步研究[J].文物世界,2008(6):36-38,42.ZHU Xiangdong,ZHU Huajun.Preliminary study on gold ornament technology in Shanxi ancient building decoration[J].World of Antiquity,2008(6):36-38,42.

    • [37] 左丽阳.山西传统贴金工艺探究——基于贴金工匠口述的研究[D].太原:山西大学,2014.ZUO Liyang.The investigation of Shanxi traditional gilding techniques:based on the oral of gilding craftmen[D].Taiyuan:Shanxi University,2014.

    • [38] 王文彬.我国传统壁画的材料工艺及应用[J].美术研究,1987(2):40-53.WANG Wenbin.Materials and techniques used for traditional murals in China and their applications[J].Art Research,1987(2):40-53.