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作者简介:

石晓薇(1999—),女,博士研究生,硅酸盐文物科技考古方向,E-mail:sxwshhk@163.com

通讯作者:

王荣(1980—),男,教授,博士生导师,E-mail:wangrong@fudan.edu.cn

中图分类号:K86

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1005-1538(2024)01-0157-13

DOI:10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20231103071

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目录contents

    摘要

    玉器是中美洲三大古文明的重要载体,具有祭祀、礼仪和装饰等多重功能。通过引入科技考古视野,首先经眼学和谱学方法(如显微镜、红外光谱、拉曼光谱等)的分析结果可知,中美洲所用玉材至少有20种且以翡翠为主,进而分析了中美洲先民的玉材利用特点:体现在治玉方面,古典时代玛雅人在雕琢、钻孔、磨抛并标准化加工翡翠的过程中展现了高效而精湛的技艺;体现在性别方面,高等级男性贵族用玉以绿色翡翠器为尊,女性贵族使用各色且种类多样的玉器而很少拥有翡翠器;体现在等级方面,贵族常用大量象征性玉器,平民使用单件玉质工具;体现在历时性方面,翡翠受资源、文化等因素影响,阿兹特克古文明的先民们对翡翠的利用率下降。本文丰富了对中美洲独特且多元的玉器发展史和玉文化的认识。

    Abstract

    Jade artifacts played a fundamental role in the three major ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica, serving multiple purposes including sacrifice, ritual and decoration. Through the incorporation of scientific and technological archaeological perspectives, alongside optical and spectroscopic methods (such as microscopy, infrared spectrometry and Raman spectrometry), it was firstly determined that at least 20 types of jade materials were used in Mesoamerica, with jadeite as the main material. Then the characteristics of material utilization by Mesoamerican ancestors were analyzed and it is suggested: in terms of jade production, Mayans in the Classic Period displayed efficient and consummate techniques in the carving, drilling, grinding, polishing and standardized manufacturing of jadeite; in terms of gender, high-ranking male aristocrats used a large quantity of jade artifacts, with green jadeite being the most prestigious, whereas female aristocrats seldom possessed jadeite artifacts but used jade artifacts with various colors and types; in terms of hierarchy, aristocrats often used a lot of symbolic jade artifacts, and commoners used a single piece of jade tool; in terms of diachronicity, influenced by various factors such as resources and cultures, etc. in ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica, the utilization of jadeite of Aztecs decreased. This paper enriches the understanding of the diverse and distinctive history of jade artifact development and jade culture in Mesoamerica.

  • 0 引言

  • 中美洲玉文化(Mesoamerican jade culture)作为环太平洋三大玉文化之一,与太平洋西岸和南岸地区的玉文化有着许多共通之处——均用玉材制器并承载政治、经济、文化等功能,同时也散发着独特的魅力。中美洲玉文化与当地三大古文明——奥尔梅克、玛雅和阿兹特克文明相互交织、共同发展:起源于公元前2000年左右的奥尔梅克文明,在古典时代(公元250年—公元900年)的玛雅文明达到高峰,至公元1521年左右随着阿兹特克文明的消亡戛然而止,有着约3500年的悠久历史[1-3],逐渐形成了独树一帜的风格,影响了特定的地域范围,主要涵盖现今墨西哥(Mexico)中部、南部以及与之毗邻的伯利兹(Belize)、危地马拉(Guatemala)、洪都拉斯(Honduras),以及萨尔瓦多(El Salvador)的西部和哥斯达黎加(Costa Rica)等地[4]。中美洲玉文化在选材上与东亚和南太平洋玉文化有所不同,后两个地区均用闪石质玉,而中美洲推崇和使用辉石玉,即翡翠[35]

  • 中美洲先民们个性鲜明的选材彰显了他们对玉材和审美观的独见独知,借助矿物学知识和现代科学技术,可以更好地理解中美洲玉文化的内涵和特点。一般认为玉材利用的差异不仅源于自然环境的影响,更与当地的历史、文化、传统和价值观息息相关,正如中美洲出土的翡翠器,其原料资源较为丰富且被认为具有神圣的颜色和坚硬的质地,因而获得中美洲先民的珍视。中美洲先民们通过拾取、开采、设计成型、切割、钻孔、雕刻、磨抛等工艺将翡翠制成特定器型,赋予其祭祀、礼仪、装饰等功能使之成为较高等级阶层的身份地位象征;而由“社会玉”(social jade,指蛇纹石、钠长石、石英、绿松石、天河石等材料)制成的其他绿色材质器物[6],因绿色调和硬度均不如翡翠,故而未受到中美洲贵族的广泛认可。

  • 由上可见,材质是文物考古研究的基础,利用现代分析测试技术鉴定出土玉器的材质,有助于不同学科的学者们全方位了解中美洲出土玉器的物理化学性质,进而能够更科学有据地分析出土玉器的玉料来源、制作工艺、器型、纹饰以及先民如何获取玉材并制作、分配、流通和使用玉器。鉴于此,本文立足科技考古视野,基于中美洲出土玉器的玉料利用情况,探索中美洲玉器特色及玉文化发展特征,为解读中美洲和中国玉文化中相似和相异的特点提供一种跨文化的思考案例。

  • 1 科技方法应用现状

  • 中美洲是世界上较早使用翡翠制作高等级象征性器物的地区之一,当地中、低等级贵族或少数平民还会使用如翡翠般的绿色玉器[7],该现象造就了中美洲先民所用玉材的复杂性,因而亟需科技手段的介入并进行鉴别工作,从而使中美洲出土玉器在玉材获取和利用方面的考古学研究更为准确。

  • 首先,在野外环境中,观察玉石的外观特征、质地、纹理等可以直观地了解其特性并鉴别其种类,如20世纪中晚期至今,福沙格(Foshag)和莱斯利(Leslie)[8]、豪夫(Hauff)[9]、塞茨(Seitz)等[10]以及罗谢特(Rochette)[11]通过观察记录了出土玉器的面貌特征,加尔萨-巴尔德斯(Garza-Valdés)[12-13]进一步关注了玉器表面的风化情况。

  • 然而,肉眼鉴定玉石的方法需要丰富的经验,并且存在一定的误差和不确定性,如哈蒙德(Hammond)等人在曼扎诺塔尔(Manzanotal)遗址初步断定的翡翠器,经实验室鉴定发现,除翡翠之外,还包括钠长石、石英等玉材[14]。为减少玉石材质判定误差,宏观的视觉观察法逐渐发展到亚微观的显微观察层面,岩矿光学薄片观察法由此得到应用,如福沙格(Foshag)和杰伊(Jay)[15]以及尼斯波洛(Niespolo)[16]利用该方法精确区分了翡翠、绿辉石、钠长石等相似的绿色玉石种类。岩矿光学薄片观察法需要将玉石切割至极薄片状,再利用光学显微镜分辨其中的矿物组成和含量,该方法虽然可更好地了解不同矿物与岩石的成矿过程[17],但因其制样的破坏性会对古玉的安全造成威胁,故而难以被广泛应用于鉴别中美洲出土玉器。近年来,罗伯斯(Robles)等人结合色度测量(color measurement)和比色技术(colorimetric technique),通过绿-红和黄-蓝四种色域对中美洲出土玉器的不同位置进行测量[18-19],帮助重现出土玉器较为标准的原生色和次生色,在一定程度上可以排除风化对出土玉器材质鉴别造成的影响。

  • 其次,更深入且更关注微观层面的谱学方法也用于分析玉石的材质[5]。从20世纪中期至今:巴斯勒(Basler)[20]、福沙格(Foshag)[21]、阿吉拉尔·梅洛(Aguilar-Melo)等[22]利用X射线衍射(XRD)快速且准确地分析了中美洲出土玉器材料的矿物组成;雷纳德(Reynoard)[23]、卢瓦尔卡巴(Ruvalcaba)等[24]、梅尔加(Melgar)等[25]利用无损的X射线荧光(XRF)光谱测试主量及微量元素;卢瓦尔卡巴(Ruvalcaba)等[26]还利用无损且高精度的质子激发X射线荧光(PIXE)光谱测试主量及微量元素;柯蒂斯(Curtiss)[27]、史密斯(Smith)等和詹德隆(Gendron)等[28-29]、曼丽克-奥尔特加(Manrique-Ortega)等[30]利用无损的红外(VNIR)和拉曼光谱(LRS)分析矿物组成及玉石种类;通过不断扩大研究对象的数量,哈蒙德(Hammond)等、毕晓普(Bishop)等[1431-32]等使用电子探针(EPMA)和中子活化分析(INAA)提高了测试玉石主量及微量元素的准确性。自21世纪以来,激光剥蚀电感耦合等离子体质谱(LA-ICP-MS)因其灵敏、快速、精确的特性使得玉石微量元素和同位素测试更加简便与高效,例如:科瓦切维奇(Kovacevich)等[33]测定了危地马拉坎古恩(Cancuen)遗址出土玉器的微量元素组成,与浅色玉器相比,深色玉器的氧化钠和氧化铁含量低、氧化铬含量高,这构成后者的指纹性特征;尼斯波洛(Niespolo)等[34]测试了坎古恩遗址出土翡翠器的氧同位素值(6.9‰~8.7‰),与莫塔瓜谷南侧的翡翠料类似,并建立了古今玉料的化学特征数据库,为探讨出土玉器的材质以及来源问题提供了坚实的数据基础。上述科技手段使辨别玉石化学组成特征变得更高效便捷,为鉴别玉石材质提供了更为全面、科学的数据基础。

  • 最后,针对中美洲玉器考古领域,科技思想与分析方法的应用正在不断进步与创新。从最初的传统外观形貌观察和硬度、密度测试,到当前采用多手段联合分析的方式,肉眼或显微镜观察以及单一科技手段在出土玉器材质鉴别方面可能产生的误差在很大程度上得以排除[35-36]。因此,将科技考古理论与实验测试技术应用于中美洲出土玉石遗物研究,其科学成果对于探讨出土玉器的材质、玉料来源、制作工艺、用玉制度等方面的内容具有重要价值。

  • 2 中美洲出土玉器的玉料利用情况

  • 玉材是关联玉器内在自然特性和外在器型、工艺、纹饰等社会属性的重要纽带,再结合特定考古背景、出土位置等信息(图1),可以勾勒出中美洲用玉制度的大致原貌。为了对中美洲出土玉器的材质进行准确鉴别,需考虑其外观特征和物理性质,初步鉴别显示中美洲玉文化中已出现了运用种类多样玉材的现象。为了更精确地鉴别并区分相似的玉材,笔者认为玉石的矿物组成、元素组成等化学性质也需纳入综合考量。

  • 图1 中美洲三大古文明地域主要遗址及其周边部分玉石矿点及矿区(笔者自绘)

  • Fig.1 Main sites and some of surrounding jade mines and mining areas of the three major ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica (self-drawn by authors)

  • 此外,笔者发现不同玉料所具有的不同自然属性,可能影响了人类对其加工的技术选择,玉石材料不同的价值属性使得玉器在美洲社会分化中扮演着重要的角色。因此,本节将以中美洲三大古文明地域内重要遗址为切入点,以材质为线索归纳总结中美洲用玉习俗,并揭示不同科技手段在中美洲出土玉器的玉料判别研究中起到的重要作用。

  • 2.1 玉器材质所体现的自然属性

  • 在中美洲玉文化中,最重要的载体——天然玉石,是由自然界产出且具有美观性、耐久性和稀少性的矿物集合体(少数为非晶质体)组成的。多年来,各学者从宏观形貌、矿物组成、元素组成、谱学特征等科技分析的多重印证下,已鉴别出中美洲三大古文明地域制作玉器的常用材质,包括翡翠、绿辉石、钠长石、绿松石、蛇纹石、石英、天河石和云母等[5]

  • 如图1所示:前古典时代早中期(公元前1800年—公元前400年)的奥尔梅克文明埃尔玛纳提遗址(El Manati)出土了翡翠、蛇纹石等斧锛形器,拉文塔遗址(La Venta)出土了超1 000 t用于铺设祭祀区域地面的蛇纹石板[137];前古典时代中期(公元前750年—公元前700年)的前玛雅文明恰帕·德·科尔佐(Chiapa de Corzo)遗址1号贵族墓随葬了2 700件翡翠等辉石质玉器(占总数的73.07%)、900件珍珠、45件黄铁矿和50件琥珀器物等[36];古典时代早期(公元250年—公元600年)的玛雅文明巴茨乌布洞(Bats’ub Cave)萨满墓出土了17颗珠子,包括13颗翡翠珠(占总数的76.47%)、4颗赤铁矿珠及贝壳器等[38];公元500年左右的阿兹特克祖先文明特奥蒂瓦坎(Teotihuacan)遗址中心墓葬出土了78件玉器,其中58件以碳酸钙和石英为主,15件以翡翠或绿辉石为主(占总数的19.23%),3件以蛇纹石为主,1件以透闪石-阳起石为主,1件以云母为主[39];后古典时代晚期(约公元1375年—公元1521年)的阿兹特克文明特诺奇蒂特兰(Tenochtitlan)遗址中心及附近墓葬出土了85件玉器,包含11件翡翠器物(占总数的12.94%)、5件石英器物、18件钠长石器物、39件碳酸钙混合其他矿物材质制成的器物、2件绿松石器物,以及10件蛇纹石器物[40]

  • 由以上可见,从中美洲玉文化原初至衰落的各阶段,玉器常出现在遗址中心墓或祭祀场所中。通过现代分析技术的鉴别,可知中美洲贵族在约3500年间共利用了至少20种玉材,涵盖低、中、高三种硬度等级的有机和无机材质(具体信息见表1);翡翠器作为高等级人群的随葬器物占比较大,其平均利用率在奥尔梅克及玛雅贵族中为74.77%,而在阿兹特克贵族中则为16.09%,显示中美洲贵族阶层代代相传地长期集中利用翡翠等辉石玉(玉石矿点常由贵族管控且浅层资源枯竭较快),该玉材因其多变的绿色调(美观性)、高硬度和高韧性(耐久性)以及稀少性而成为中美洲崇尚绿色、偏爱珍稀材质的玉文化的具象标识,并被赋予较高的等级性。

  • 表1 中美洲三大古文明地域出土玉器材质分类表

  • Table1 Material classification of unearthed jade artifacts from the three major ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica

  • 就中美洲翡翠而言,它是由硬玉NaAl[Si2O6]和钠(钙)质辉石等主要矿物,角闪石、钠长石等次要矿物,以及少量铬铁矿、金云母、沸石等组成的非均质集合体,其自然属性至少包括以下两点。

  • 1)中美洲出土翡翠器物的主要氧化物组分应为钠、铝、钙和铁(不含镁的氧化物),可参见古典时代早期(公元250年—公元600年)的玛雅文明帕比顿(Pacbitun)遗址中出土玉吊坠的检测结果[42-43];同时,中美洲出土翡翠器物在化学成分和丰度上非常稳定,如福沙格(Foshag)和莱斯利(Leslie)测得其氧化钠、氧化铝和二氧化硅的相对质量比例约为1∶2∶5[815],而缅甸翡翠中相应氧化物的比例约为1∶1∶3[44],表明中美洲出土翡翠器原料的化学组成具有地域性特色。

  • 2)钠与钠钙之和的比值约为翡翠中钠铝辉石的含量(简称“Jd%”),也可利用富含钠、钙的特征矿物的拉曼峰强度定量计算近似得到Jd%,进而确定翡翠中主要矿物组成的含量[45]。以奥尔梅克文明埃尔玛纳提遗址为例[29],其出土的41件器物中有33件翡翠器物和1件绿辉石器物:17件翡翠器的Jd%处于80%~95%之间,材质为以钠铝辉石为主的翡翠,其中15件呈现深绿色调,2件呈现灰白色调;16件的Jd%处于63%~78%之间,材质为以绿辉石为主的翡翠,呈现蓝绿色调;仅1件的Jd%为38%,材质应为绿辉石材质,呈现浅绿色调。

  • 根据图1,邻近中美洲三大古文明地域的现代翡翠矿——危地马拉、古巴和多米尼加共和国翡翠,经科技分析表明危地马拉莫塔瓜谷南北侧应是大部分中美洲出土翡翠器的玉料来源地[31-34]。此外,如图2所示,上述现代翡翠矿中以钠铝辉石为主(Jd%处于80%~100%之间)的翡翠占据主导地位[46-48],而埃尔玛纳提遗址出土翡翠器中,以钠铝辉石为主的翡翠和以绿辉石为主的翡翠占比接近,这表明了中美洲先民们使用翡翠玉料的偏好和习惯。

  • 图2 中美洲古文明地域出土翡翠器及现代翡翠的钠与钠钙之和的比值(笔者自绘)

  • Fig.2 Ratios of sodium to sodium-calcium compared between unearthed jadeite artifacts from the ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica and modern jadeite (self-drawn by authors)

  • 由以上可见,深绿色及蓝绿色玉器在中美洲中高等级贵族中受到青睐,科学分析显示它们均为翡翠材质,包括以钠铝辉石为主的翡翠和以绿辉石为主的翡翠两种,占总器物数的80.49%(33/41),其中质量较好的翡翠占比达51.52%(17/33),表明中美洲先民已具备初步分辨和获取不同玉材的能力,且当地贵族拥有较高比例优质翡翠器的特权资格,进而反映出中美洲已经形成了以翡翠为尊的用玉意识,同时翡翠也成为使用人群等级分化的象征物。

  • 2.2 玉器材质所体现的技术演进

  • 奥尔梅克及玛雅初期玉文化(前古典时代,公元前2000年—公元250年)中,蛇纹石、云母等材质的玉器较多(图3a和图3b),早期先民们多通过“就地取材”得到这些玉料,如前古典时代(约公元前1000年)的奥尔梅克人在其文明中心附近的巴尔萨斯河(Rio Balsas)捡拾并就近进行加工(图1),仅通过片切割的方式将这些玉材制成锛、斧、片等器型的玉器;翡翠并不常见,可能来源于莫塔瓜谷,且大部分翡翠器呈现光素无纹的特点[49-50],显示了中美洲初期先民的治玉工艺较为简朴,治玉水平停留在初级阶段,因而中高等级贵族也只能使用较为朴素的翡翠器物[51-52]。类似的情况也出现在阿兹特克玉文化中,由于其文明中心远离奥尔梅克和玛雅先民开采翡翠的资源地却接近绿松石资源地[53](图1),因此由质地较软的绿松石镶嵌而成的器物成为高等级贵族的身份象征[54]

  • 如图1所示,古典时代(公元250年—公元900年)的玛雅人主要在其文明中心附近的莫塔瓜谷内河流捡拾次生翡翠、绿石英等玉料;也进行地下开采较高质量原生翡翠[14]。该时代早期(公元250年—公元600年),玛雅文明帕比顿遗址出土了2件圆雕人脸形象的翡翠吊坠,尺寸约为2.2 cm×2.3 cm×1.5 cm(图3c),分别呈浅绿色带有深绿色条纹和浅绿色带有白色条纹的外观,两者顶部有大量平行的竖线刻纹,旨在模仿头发形态;额部有较小的单面钻圆形孔,可能用作悬挂佩戴;脸部较为精细地刻画出了具有中美洲人群特征的细节,嘴部有较大的单面钻圆形孔,旨在模拟张嘴状态;两者正面经打磨抛光,呈玻璃光泽,反面未抛光,较为粗糙[4255]。由此可见,对高硬度材质进行线切割、打磨与抛光等基础加工以及管钻和刻画等进阶加工技术的灵活运用,充分展示了玛雅人成熟的雕琢技艺和精致的审美,进一步印证了古典时代为玛雅乃至中美洲玉文化的高峰期。

  • 至古典时代晚期(公元800年—公元950年),玛雅文明乌卡纳尔(Ucanal)遗址出土了经由圆雕和高浮雕工艺制成的不透明绿色人像吊坠(图1和图3d),其栩栩如生的五官反映了玛雅先民们写实的审美观和精湛的治玉工艺;而在古典时代早期,玛雅文明各遗址主要出土了加工难度较低且尺寸较小的云母质人像吊坠[56]。此外,如表2所示,笔者认为玛雅玉文化中某一器型玉器的制作背后可能拥有特定规格,如项链等串饰及其吊坠的标准重量约1 600~2 300 g,耳饰的标准重量约30 g,胸饰的标准重量约600 g,手饰与脚饰的标准重量约200 g,斧形腰饰的标准重量约80 g等[56-60],表明随着治玉技术的演进,玛雅人可以游刃有余地制作中高硬度玉材并建立起一套标准化玉器加工流程,使得贵族阶级的身份象征物更加直观,以提升他们的威望。

  • 由以上可见,奥尔梅克和阿兹特克先民对高硬度材质的加工能力有限(图3a、图3b和图3e),所以其治玉工艺相对较为简单。玛雅先民则具有较高的治玉工艺水平,因此,玛雅玉文化达到了中美洲玉文化的高峰阶段,无论在材质选用等有形实体方面,还是在审美意趣、玉礼制度等无形意识方面,均凸显了中美洲贵族的高等级身份地位,特别是具有精雕细琢工艺和标准样式的翡翠器。

  • 图3 中美洲三大古文明地域出土玉器材质及工艺的历时性变化特征

  • Fig.3 Diachronic changes of the materials and craftsmanship of unearthed jade artifacts from the three major ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica

  • 表2 玛雅文明乌卡纳尔遗址出土翡翠器器型及重量对应情况[56-57]

  • Table2 Correspondence between the forms and weights of unearthed jadeite artifacts from Ucanal site of the Maya civilization

  • 2.3 玉器材质所体现的性别差异

  • 玉器,原为中美洲玉文化中用于沟通天地神明的象征性灵物,仅在统治者或神权领袖间流通使用。随着中美洲人群迁徙及后期社会分化,玉器逐渐成为代表贵族身份地位的象征物,使得不同中美洲人群持有玉器的情况大相径庭[61-62]

  • 前古典时代中期(公元前750年—公元前700年)的玛雅文明恰帕·德·科尔佐遗址,其中男性贵族随葬约2 700件翡翠等辉石质玉器,而女性贵族随葬了27颗由绿色石英、绿松石质玉珠组成的串饰[36]。至古典时代早中期(公元250年—公元850年)的玛雅文明帕伦克(Palenque)遗址(图1),通过红外和拉曼光谱分析一位女性王室成员(被称为“红皇后”)的部分随葬玉石器可知:较大型面具是用119件绿色孔雀石片、4件白色翡翠片和2件黑色黑曜石镶嵌而成,黑曜石和翡翠分别被用来模拟人脸面具的眼睛;小型面具是由106件绿色、黄色调钠长石、绿辉石、石英及石英+文石和红色调(黏附了朱砂)碳酸盐矿物构成;该女性贵族常用由翡翠组成的装饰性面具以及由其他玉材组成的串饰等[30]

  • 如图1和表3所示,古典时代中期(公元750年—公元800年),玛雅文明博纳帕克(Bonampak)遗址中两座墓葬出土了172件绿色玉质和石质器物(包括环状耳饰、项圈、手镯、腹部装饰物等),经谱学分析可知出土玉器共164件(占总数的95.35%)[22]。其中的一座墓葬出土玉器共138件(占出土玉器总数的84.15%),材质以翡翠等辉石玉为主,共115件(占该墓葬出土玉器的83.33%),其中质量较好的翡翠器共5件(占比3.62%),结合该墓葬采用人牲祭祀的葬仪印证该墓主人应属中美洲较高等级贵族。另一座墓葬仅出土26件玉器(占出土玉器总数的15.85%),翡翠等辉石玉共16件(占该墓葬出土玉器的61.54%),由于该墓葬没有特殊葬仪,表明其墓主人等级低于前者。此外,该遗址中男性贵族的随葬品反映出他们常用翡翠等辉石玉质颈饰和手饰,与女性贵族仅用翡翠点缀面具的装饰习俗有所不同。

  • 表3 中美洲古文明地域出土玉器材质与墓葬等级、出土位置及数量间关系[22]

  • Table3 Relationship between the materials of unearthed jade artifacts from the ancient civilization in Mesoamerica and the tomb levels, locations and quantities of jade artifacts

  • 由以上可见,随着时间推移,中美洲古文明地域中高等级墓葬通常出土数量更多的玉器,材质包括绿色(或绿色调)的翡翠、绿辉石、钠长石、天河石等。特别值得注意的是,绿色明艳、品质优异的翡翠项饰和手饰往往出现在中美洲中、高等级男性墓葬,质量次之的翡翠面具和项饰出现在高等级女性墓葬(图4a和图4b),表明玉器常被用来装饰使用者的显著部位,且中美洲的用玉习俗存在性别差异,男性贵族在社会中通常具有更高地位。此外,中美洲女性贵族“红皇后”(王后等级)的随葬翡翠器的数量虽不如国王,但部分材质具有稀少与美观的特性,如绿色孔雀石在中美洲世界较为少见,但在该王后墓中较为丰富。笔者认为,绿色孔雀石与白色翡翠以及黄橙色石英或文石组成的多彩饰品组合(以面具、项饰为主),显示出中美洲最高等级贵族女性的随葬品具有较高美学价值,凸显了玉器在王室墓葬高规格葬仪中具备重要地位。

  • 2.4 玉器材质所体现的社会分化

  • 玉石器是中美洲贵族墓葬中常见且充盈的珍贵物品,如:前古典时代,奥尔梅克贵族常随葬大量的礼玉和祭玉[5];进入古典时代,玛雅王室和贵族随葬品常常包括大量玉料、废料、半成品、成品以及工具,相比之下,玛雅平民的随葬品中只含极少的玉质工具,且磨损程度较大[63-64];至后古典时代,仅阿兹特克王室随葬大量翡翠成品和绿松石片[65]。这些具有丧葬功能的玉石器以极高的珍贵性和与之匹配的高等级葬仪,反映和象征着中美洲的社会分化及人群等级。

  • 图4 中美洲古文明地域出土玉器材质与墓主人性别的对应情况

  • Fig.4 Correspondence between the materials of unearthed jade artifacts and the genders of tomb owners from the ancient civilization in Mesoamerica

  • 古典时代早中期(公元250年—公元750年),玛雅文明的帕比顿遗址中心墓葬出现大量制作精良的玉质随葬品环绕和玉片覆盖墓主人的现象;而卡拉克穆尔(Calakmul)遗址3号建筑(Structure Ⅲ)下方墓葬出土3套分别由约170件、125件以及90件玉片(翡翠、贝壳、黄铁矿材质)组成的面具,4对玉耳饰,1串玉珠,1件玉牌饰,1件玉环,32颗玉珠和8252件贝壳器等环绕墓主人的现象[66]。此外,玛雅文明帕伦克遗址有四座重要神庙,即第十八-A神庙(Temple XVIII-A,公元250年—公元450年)、十字神庙(Temple of the Cross,公元300年—公元600年)、第十八神庙(Temple XVIII,公元600年—公元850年)和骷髅神庙(Temple of the Skull,公元700年—公元770年),其中,骷髅神庙是最高等级贵族墓地[19]。根据比色技术的测试结果可知:古典时代早期,第十八-A神庙(较高等级)和十字神庙(较低等级)下方墓葬出土大量玉器,其绿色调均较为相近,但整体翡翠材质占比较少,翡翠器物多出土于较高等级的第十八-A神庙(图5a和图5b);至古典时代晚期,骷髅神庙(较高等级)和第十八神庙(较低等级)下方墓葬也出土大量玉器,但其绿色调差别较大,除较多翡翠外,所用玉材还囊括钠长石、云母等,翡翠器物多出土于较高等级的骷髅神庙(图5c和图5d)。

  • 图5 中美洲古文明地域出土玉器与使用人群等级关系的历时性变化特征

  • Fig.5 Diachronic changes of the relationship between unearthed jade artifacts and the levels of users from the ancient civilization in Mesoamerica

  • 在中美洲玉文化的早期阶段,先民们拥有相对丰富的玉料资源(如2.1和2.2部分所述,莫塔瓜谷翡翠资源易于获取),高等级贵族有意识地选择类似绿色调的翡翠并将其通过环绕逝者的方式陪葬,而低等级贵族也能挑选绿色调的低等级玉材陪葬。至晚期,随着玉料资源的逐渐匮乏且地下开采原生翡翠的技术受限[14],高等级贵族被迫在随葬翡翠外尽量选择同为绿色调的其他玉材,低等级贵族仅随葬种类杂乱、绿色差异大的低等级玉器。

  • 根据以上情况,笔者认为由早至晚的出土玉器在材质上表现出较大的差异性,而在颜色上则存在较大的相似性,这一用玉习俗可能与中美洲社会分化后贵族阶级推崇翡翠有关,促使早期贵族们有意识地选择相似绿色调翡翠,而在后期随着翡翠等玉石资源的短缺,理想与现实两者间的矛盾与冲突愈演愈烈,使得他们在无法获得充足而优质翡翠的情况下,退而求其次选取其他质量较好的绿色玉材。

  • 2.5 玉器材质所体现的历时性特征

  • 中美洲玉文化以翡翠为尊的独特性和当地男性贵族以绿为先的差异性而遗世独立,具有深远的历史和文化价值,正如中美洲三大古文明地域遗址,其中较高等级贵族墓葬或礼仪性场所均出土了大量玉器:奥尔梅克玉器的材质以翡翠、蛇纹石、云母为主;玛雅玉器的材质以翡翠为主,还兼有石英、钠长石、天河石、孔雀石等无机材料及少量珍珠、琥珀等有机材料;阿兹特克翡翠器数量有所下降但均出土于高等级墓葬。以上表明奥尔梅克、玛雅和阿兹特克玉文化均尊崇翡翠。

  • 此外,中美洲不同古文明地域内各等级先民大量利用绿色玉材(涉及表1所列的20种玉材),如图3b、图3c和图5所示:奥尔梅克文明在墨西哥海湾欣欣向荣,其出土玉器多为类似海洋的蓝绿色;而玛雅及阿兹特克文明更依赖定居陆地的农业模式,其出土玉器多为类似玉米等作物的黄绿色或翠绿色,其中以翡翠等辉石玉器数量占比最多[67-68]。然而,从早期到晚期,贵族和少数平民对翡翠的利用率有所下降。奥尔梅克及玛雅文明中约65.92%,奥尔梅克先民仅能简单切割翡翠、蛇纹石等不同硬度的玉材并制成片状玉器;相比之下,玛雅先民已能熟练对翡翠等高硬度玉材进行镂空、刻画等精细加工。然而,在阿兹特克文明中,贵族和少数平民对翡翠的利用率降低到只有15.03%左右,先民更倾向于将绿松石等中低硬度的玉材切割成片,不进行饰纹加工,而直接用于镶嵌;相反地,石英-碳酸钙质玉器的使用数量从1.68%左右增长至64.74%左右。这可能是由于阿兹特克文明中心远离翡翠产地,且玛雅贵族常控制玉石资源的开采及其加工全流程[69],造成了阿兹特克先民对翡翠的利用率较低且治玉工艺发展延缓。在中美洲出土玉器中,有机材质主要以珍珠为主,利用率可达27.07%左右,而琥珀数量较少,利用率只有约1.50%(图6)。这些数据具体展示了中美洲先民在不同时期对不同玉材的使用偏好和加工技术的变化。

  • 图6 中美洲三大古文明地域出土玉器的玉料利用情况[192229-303638-4065-66](笔者自绘)

  • Fig.6 Utilization of the jade materials of unearthed jade artifacts from the three major ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica (self-drawn by authors)

  • 由上可见,中美洲玉文化在不同古文明地域的发展过程中,形成了一条较为清晰的变化脉络,即三大古文明贵族均长久利用翡翠等辉石玉,其审美价值受到文明中心由海洋向内陆、由渔猎向农耕的迁徙而呈现蓝绿色向黄绿色的转变;由于加工难度与资源的稀缺性,先民们对翡翠等高硬度材质的利用率和治玉工艺水平呈现出曲折前进式的发展趋势。

  • 3 结论

  • 出土玉器性质的研究基石在于材质分析,笔者提炼了多学科研究方法,包括岩矿学观察、颜色测量、红外和拉曼光谱、X射线荧光光谱等无损快速鉴定方法在中美洲玉器材质鉴别方面的应用成果,再结合出土玉器的考古背景资料,阐释了中美洲的用玉习俗。

  • 从自然属性和加工技术角度来看:绿色在中美洲玉文化中具有生命与活力的象征性内涵,绿色玉器在葬礼、祭祀、祈福等活动中被中美洲贵族大量使用,其涉及有机质和无机质两大类中20种玉材,具有礼仪、祭祀和装饰功能,而极少数平民随葬少量玉质工具。治玉水平从奥尔梅克先民只能对中高硬度材质进行简单切割加工,发展至玛雅先民能精细加工高硬度材质,而阿兹特克先民则更善于加工中低硬度材质。

  • 从用玉性别差异和社会分化角度来看:高等级男性贵族有意识地选择同为绿色调的翡翠器,该行为导致浅层翡翠资源日益枯竭,故而中低等级男性贵族只能挑选与使用绿色调非翡翠材质的器物;高等级女性贵族持有的翡翠器数量相对较少,大体呈现多彩多材的特点。以上表明在中美洲先民的社会中,贵族阶级才能使用翡翠器物,且男女用玉存在着明显的差异。

  • 中美洲玉文化随着时代的变迁经历了“萌芽—高峰—衰落”的发展趋势。具体来说:在以采集海洋产物为生的奥尔梅克先民的用玉基础上,以种植玉米为生的玛雅先民广泛使用翠绿色的翡翠以及其他种类的丰富玉材,相对富足稳定的生活使得他们钻研了精湛的玉石加工技巧,从而达到了中美洲玉文化鼎盛时期;阿兹特克先民则在玉料资源减少、文明中心距翡翠矿较远以及其他文明的贵族对翡翠贸易和加工技术的垄断等因素共同作用下,只能优先利用并加工硬度较低的玉材。这表明了中美洲三大古文明先民代代相传,均具有崇尚玉的价值观,并以翡翠为首选,还具备不同程度获取和加工高硬度玉材的能力。

  • 笔者认为,今后有必要将日益高效且精确的微区和高能粒子激发X射线荧光光谱以及原位微损质谱等科技方法广泛应用于玉料化学成分和同位素的分析,这样既可以丰富中美洲出土玉器材质鉴别和利用研究,又可以为翡翠等玉材溯源研究提供科学数据支撑,进一步发掘中美洲玉文化的内涵。

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    • [36] MANRIQUE-ORTEGA M D,CLAES P,CASANOVA-GONZÁLEZ E,et al. Non-invasive analysis of green stone pieces from Tomb 1 of Chiapa de Corzo,Chiapas[J]. MRS Online Proceedings Library(OPL),2014,1618:17-29.

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    • [38] PRUFER K M,DUNHAM P S. A shaman’s burial from an Early Classic cave in the Maya Mountains of Belize,Mesoamerica[J]. World Archaeology,2009,41(2):295-320.

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    • [42] HEALY P F,DORAN M C,GEORG R B,et al. Mass spectrometric analysis of ancient Maya greenstone artifacts from Pacbitun,Belize[J]. Journal of Archaeological Science:Reports,2018,19:526-537.

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    • [44] ZHANG Y,SHI G. Origin of blue-water jadeite jades from Myanmar and Guatemala:differentiation by non-destructive spectroscopic techniques[J]. Crystals,2022,12(10):1448.

    • [45] MORIMOTO N. Nomenclature of pyroxenes:subcommitee on pyroxenes Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names(CNMMN)International Mineral Association(IMA)[J]. Schweizerische Mineralogische Und Petrographische Mitteilungen,1988,68(1):95-111.

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    • [56] HALPERIN C T,HRUBY Z X,MONGELLUZZO R. The weight of ritual:Classic Maya jade head pendants in the round[J]. Antiquity,2018,92(363):758-771.

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    • [60] STUART D. Jade and chocolate:bundles of wealth in Classic Maya economics and ritual[C]//GUERNSEY J,REILLY F K. Sacred Bundles:Ritual Acts of Wrapping and Binding in Mesoamerica. Barnardsville:Boundary End Archaeology Research Center,2006:127-144.

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    • [63] KOVACEVICH B. The organization of jade production at Cancuen,Guatemala[C]//HRUBY Z,BRASWELL G E,MAZARIEGOS O C. The Technology of Maya Civilization,Political Economy and Beyond in Lithic Studies. London:Routledge,2011:151-163.

    • [64] MCKILLOP H,HARLOW G,SIEVERT A,et al. Demystifying jadeite:an underwater Maya discovery at Ek Way Nal,Belize[J]. Antiquity,2019,93(368):502-518.

    • [65] TAUBE K A. The symbolism of turquoise in ancient Mesoamerica[C]//KING J C H,CAROCCI M,CARTWRIGHT C,et al. Turquoise in Mexico and North America:Science,Conservation,Culture and Collections. London:Archetype/British Museum,2012:117-134.

    • [66] FOLAN W J,MARCUS J,PINCEMIN S,et al. Calakmul:new data from an ancient Maya capital in Campeche,Mexico[J]. Latin American Antiquity,1995,6(4):310-334.

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    • [69] RUSEK M H. Greenstone artefacts from the Maya site of Nakum,Peten,Guatemala[J]. Archaeology,2014,6:135-166.

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