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作者简介:

王宁远(1990—),男,扬州大学社会发展学院博士研究生,研究方向为汉晋考古、汉晋社会文化生活史,E-mail:243689942@qq.com

中图分类号:K878.8

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1005-1538(2024)01-0101-10

DOI:10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20231103078

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目录contents

    摘要

    黑水国汉代墓葬出土的农具、动物骨骼、农作物遗存和人骨为人们了解河西走廊张掖地区汉晋时期生业经济和农业发展等问题提供了重要证据。通过动物骨骼、农作物遗存鉴定结果和人骨碳氮同位素检测结果,可以揭示汉晋时期黑水国人群的食物结构和生业模式特点。墓葬出土的农作物有粟、黍、稻,随葬动物有鸡、猪、绵羊、黄牛、狗、马,人骨骨胶原碳稳定同位素主要呈现C3和C4混合信号,部分呈现C3信号和C4信号,氮稳定同位素值相较牛羊等家养食草动物较高。综合研究说明汉晋时期河西走廊形成麦类、粟黍和豆类的混合农业模式,所以黑水国汉代先民摄取的粮食作物来源呈多样化。同时,河西走廊畜牧业发达,使当时人群摄取了大量的肉食资源,导致蛋白质摄入量较高。

    Abstract

    The excavation of agricultural tools, animal bones, crop remains and human bones from the Heishui State Han tombs provides important evidence for understanding the socio-economic and agricultural development of Zhangye region in Hexi Corridor during the Han-Jin period. Based on the identification results of animal bones and crop remains, and carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis results of human bone collagen, the food structure and subsistence patterns of the population in Heishui State during the Han-Jin period can be revealed. The excavated crops include millet, broomcorn millet and rice, and the accompanying burial animals consist of chickens, pigs, sheep, cattle, dogs and horses. The stable carbon isotopes of collagen from human bones mainly exhibit a mixed signal of C3 and C4 plants with some showing only a C3 or C4 signal. Additionally, stable nitrogen isotope values are relatively higher compared to those of domestic herbivores such as cattle and sheep. Based on comprehensive research, it is evident that during the Han-Jin period, a mixed agricultural mode of wheat, millet, and beans was developed in Hexi Corridor, indicating diverse food sources of the ancient people in Heishui State during the Han Dynasties. Additionally, animal husbandry thrived in Hexi Corridor at that time, providing abundant meat resources for consumption by the population and resulting in a higher intake of protein.

  • 0 引言

  • 黑水国遗址位于河西走廊中部的张掖市甘州区,为多个家族形成的大型公共墓地。2018—2019年甘肃省文物考古研究所对黑水国遗址墓葬进行了抢救性发掘,共发掘墓葬119座,其中汉代墓葬118座,唐代墓葬1座(M91)。墓葬根据其形制与典型出土陶器型式统计分析,可分为西汉中期偏晚、西汉晚期、王莽—东汉早期、东汉中晚期、唐代共五期。墓葬出土随葬品1 065件(套),可鉴定动物骨骼1 020件,人骨116具[1]。通过分析研究黑水国汉墓出土农具、动物骨骼、农作物遗存鉴定结果和人骨碳氮同位素检测结果,可以揭示这一时期此地区人群的食物结构和生业模式特点。结合近年河西地区壁画墓出土画像砖、简牍的记载,并与中原地区近年动物、植物考古的相关研究结果进行比较,可以进一步探讨河西走廊乃至整个西北地区汉代先民墓葬中随葬动物种类和组合规律及汉晋时期河西走廊开发情况,从而分析理解人群流动带来的文化交流与融合。

  • 1 样品和方法

  • 1.1 动物骨骼鉴定材料和方法

  • 所鉴定动物骨骼样品出土于黑水国汉墓2018年发掘的M10、M14、M18、M25、M54、M55、M101等27个墓葬单位,共计1022件。其中可鉴定标本数(number of identified specimen,NISP)1020件,代表动物最小个体数(minimum number of individual,MNI)64个[2]

  • 考古发掘人员在发掘过程中严格按照墓葬单位细致收集动物骨骼,便于整理鉴定过程中不同单位对比统计分析。在整理过程中,按照种属、部位、方位(左右)、数量、痕迹、测量数据等顺序进行鉴定并记录。对动物骨骼的鉴定及测量方法主要参考《动物骨骼图谱》[3]、《考古遗址出土动物骨骼测量指南》[4]等中外文资料,骨骼标准主要对照兰州大学环境考古实验室收集的现生和古代动物标本。

  • 1.2 人骨碳氮稳定同位素分析样品和方法

  • 本研究的116具人骨样本均取自黑水国墓地,其中可确定分期的样品共100个(第一期为9个,第二期为29个,第三期为57个,第四期为4个,第五期为1个但不计入本研究的讨论范围),无法确定分期的样品有16个[2]

  • 人骨骨胶原的提取方法是在Richards和Hedges[5]的研究基础上做出改进后于西部环境教育部重点实验室(兰州大学)完成的。首先清理人骨骨骼表面的污染物,再依据骨骼保存状况取0.5~1.5 g样品,加入15 mL左右0.5 mol/L的盐酸,将样品置于4℃的环境下,每两天更换盐酸直至没有气泡产生。然后用去离子水将样品洗至中性后加入0.125 mol/L的NaOH溶液,在4℃的环境下反应20 h。再次洗至中性后加入pH=3的稀盐酸,在75℃的烘箱中酸化48 h。最后将样品进行过滤和冷冻干燥获得骨胶原。骨胶原碳、氮元素含量和稳定同位素比值均在中国科学院大学考古学与人类学系稳定同位素考古实验室进行测试。碳、氮同位素的比值分别表示为相对于国际标准VPDB和AIR的δ13C和δ15N值[2]

  • 2 结果和讨论

  • 2.1 出土农具分析

  • 黑水国汉墓出土的与农业生产相关的工具较少,只在M42、M142墓道填土出土了铁锸(图1)——可能是修建墓葬时遗留在墓道中的起土工具。铁锸是汉代的起土工具和翻耕农具[6],也是汉代最常用的农具[7]。同时黑水国汉墓还出土了如铁环、铁剑、环首铁刀、铁带钩、铁镦等各种铁器,特别是大量的铁棺钉,由此推断黑水国地区使用大量的铁农具,而铁器的普遍使用,对汉晋时期该区域的开发和农业生产具有重要的影响。

  • 图1 铁锸

  • Fig.1 Iron spades

  • 目前考古发现的实物资料已证实汉晋时期铁农具和牛耕技术已在河西地区推广,例如:敦煌甜水井汉代遗址出土铁镰、铁锸等农耕工具[8];敦煌悬泉置遗址出土犁、锸、铧、镰、锛、铲等铁制生产工具[9];武威磨咀子汉墓出土铁犁铧[10]、木牛犁模型[11];居延屯田遗址发现了木耧车脚,即当时最新式的播种工具耧车上的构件[12]。河西走廊魏晋壁画墓也描绘了耕地和耙地场景,如嘉峪关魏晋壁画墓描绘了“一牛挽犁”和“两牛抬杠”的牛耕图像[13-14]。居延汉简中也有“铁器薄”“牛籍简”的记载[15]。先进铁农具和畜力在农业生产中的投入,极大地促进了汉晋时期河西走廊的屯田和农业的发展。

  • 2.2 随葬动物骨骼分析

  • 2.2.1 随葬动物骨骼组合分析

  • 黑水国汉墓出土的动物骨骼,经鉴定主要有家鸡、家猪、绵羊、黄牛、狗、马,均为家养动物。1 020件可鉴定标本中:家鸡骨骼为522件,占可鉴定标本总量的51.18%;家猪骨骼为257件,占可鉴定标本总量的25.20%[2]。具体随葬动物骨骼可鉴定样本数据见表1和图2[2]

  • 表1 黑水国汉墓随葬动物骨骼统计数据

  • Table1 Statistical data on animal skeletons buried at Heishui State Han tombs

  • 图2 黑水国汉墓随葬动物种属比例示意图

  • Fig.2 Illustration of the proportional distribution of burial animals at Heishui State Han tombs

  • 可鉴定标本数和最小个体数的数据均显示鸡在随葬动物中占据主要地位,其次是猪、狗、牛、羊,马的数量很少。此外,各墓葬出土的家鸡骨骼大多同时包含上、下肢及左、右侧的骨骼,说明多数家鸡是整只随葬。

  • 随葬动物中的哺乳动物主要是猪,年龄段较为集中,95%为幼猪,因此判断为家猪。幼猪可食用肉量较少,用来进行随葬,既能起到祭祀作用,又可节约肉食资源。在M18的陶罐内发现了包括顶骨、颞骨、额骨、颧骨在内的家猪头骨[1](图3),推断此墓葬中随葬了整个猪头,可能也是为了节约肉食资源。哺乳动物中第二多的是绵羊,但仅出土于M10、M16和M32:N之中,只有M10出土的绵羊骨骼较为完整,M16仅出土了绵羊的肋骨[1]。该批样品中的黄牛骨骼出土于M55、M57(图4),M55中出土黄牛骨骼种类较多,多数骨垢线未闭合,可能随葬了整只幼龄黄牛;M57出土的黄牛骨骼则只有肋骨、椎骨和指骨,推断可能不是整只随葬,此情况或许同样是为了节约牲畜资源与肉食资源。该批样品中狗和马的骨骼数量较少,均只出土1例,且马只有骨掌随葬。

  • 黑水国汉墓主要随葬鸡和猪,特别是鸡的数量最多,且以整鸡随葬,可能是某种特殊的葬俗和信仰的象征,也可能与丧葬用鸡有关[16]。河西走廊魏晋十六国壁画墓中的家畜以猪为多,家禽以鸡为多,屠宰图中也常见宰猪画面[17],说明家畜猪和家禽鸡是河西走廊汉晋先民最容易最普遍获得的肉食资源。大型家养动物马、牛、羊少见,且随葬主要为肢骨,推测不整只随葬,可能与节约肉食资源有关,特别是牛、马作为畜力资源或战争资源,在游牧民族聚居地围绕的河西走廊的重要性更加凸显,因此很少整只随葬。

  • 图3 M18:7陶罐内的猪骨

  • Fig.3 Pig bones in the M18:7 pottery jar

  • 图4 M57棺盖上出土的牛骨

  • Fig.4 Cattle bones unearthed on the lid of M57 coffin

  • 2.2.2 与其他地区对比分析

  • 随葬动物可以体现动物群落自身的地域特征[18]。黑水国汉墓随葬的动物骨骼与汉代中原地区、北方地区及南方沿海地区汉墓比较差别较大。中原地区随葬动物多为鸡、猪、狗,其次为牛、羊、鹿、兔,如:济南洛庄汉墓,随葬动物主要为猪、狗、羊、兔[19];长沙马王堆1号汉墓随葬动物主要为家犬、家猪、梅花鹿、野兔等[20]。北方地区的草原、高原等地的游牧民族多随葬牛、羊、马等动物。南方沿海地区多随葬水生动物及家畜家禽,如广州象岗南越王墓随葬动物主要为各种鱼类、软体动物等水生动物,以及家牛、猪等家畜[21]。从鉴定结果看,黑水国汉墓的随葬动物组合与中原地区、北方地区及南方沿海地区都不尽相同,主要以鸡、猪、羊、牛为主。

  • 黑水国汉墓中随葬的家养动物种类与“六畜”——马、牛、羊、鸡、犬、豚[22]相吻合,说明当时的农业生产已十分发达,家畜、家禽的饲养也颇具规模,足以为先民提供肉食来源。

  • 河西走廊魏晋壁画墓中的各种畜牧图、宰牲图及骑猎图也都展示了该地区发达的畜牧业[23-28],进一步说明大型家畜在汉晋时期河西走廊的屯田开荒和戍边过程中的重要性,出土汉简也记载了河西走廊军民主要的肉食品种包括牛、马、猪、羊、狗,鸡[29-34]。墓葬出土的动物骨骼、魏晋壁画墓以及汉简都展示出畜牧业在河西走廊政治、经济中的重要作用。

  • 2.3 出土农作物遗存分析

  • 黑水国汉墓随葬的陶器内没有发现随葬农作物遗存,仅在个别墓葬如M15、M16、M23、M30内发现有炭化的粟黍遗存,M168出土铜圆盒内储存有少量的农作物种子,经鉴定为部分炭化严重的稻颖壳。以上表明粟黍是汉代张掖地区先民种植的主要农作物,也是主要的粮食作物,而出土的稻颖壳则说明水稻也是部分先民的粮食来源。据汉代水稻出土情况统计,目前汉代水稻遗存大部分出土于长江流域、云贵地区和两广地区,而北方地区发现很少,特别是北部边疆地区仅在新疆出土过[35-36]。一般认为稻颖壳作为水稻种植的副产品,应该在种植水稻区域的遗址内被发现,而目前考古证据和文献资料均显示汉代西北边疆不种植水稻,所以推测黑水国汉墓出土的稻颖壳应是由于当时水稻被运输至黑水国地区供人群食用进而随葬的。

  • 汉代河西走廊部分遗址和墓葬出土有大量农作物遗存,根据出土的农作物判断,该地区主要种植粟、黍、大麦、小麦、豆、麻等农作物,其中粟黍最多,小麦和大麦次之,豆和麻最少[37]。同时期的河南种植粟、黍、麦、麻、稻、豆,陕西种植粟、黍、豆、麦、稻、高粱、麻等[35],与中原地区相比河西走廊种植稻以外的大部分农作物。此外,汉简也记载了河西走廊丰富的农作物品种[3438-43]。黑水国汉墓虽然没有发现大量的农作物遗存,但结合河西走廊汉代出土粮食实物、汉简及历史文献记载与人骨稳定同位素的分析可以判断汉代河西走廊农业种植情况及人群主要农作物的摄食结构。

  • 2.4 人骨稳定同位素分析

  • 碳氮稳定同位素是研究人和动物食谱最常用的指标,C3、C4是人体在食用自然界食物后呈现出的相对应信号。常见的C3类作物有水稻、小麦、大麦和豆类等,C4类作物有粟、黍、玉米和高粱等。骨胶原中氮稳定同位素主要来自食物中的蛋白质,δ15N常被用于反映消费者所处的营养级以及食用动物蛋白的情况。

  • 2.4.1 人群食谱总特征

  • 通过对黑水国汉墓人骨进行碳氮稳定同位素分析的结果(图5)来看,人骨骨胶原的δ13C范围为-19.5‰~-10.2‰(均值=-16.0‰±1.7‰)[2]。大部分样品呈现C3和C4混合信号,部分样品呈现C3信号和C4信号,推断河西走廊先民摄食的C3类作物可能主要为大小麦、豆类和稻米,C4类作物主要为粟黍等,说明黑水国汉代先民摄食的粮食作物来源多样化,与上文所述河西走廊的粮食作物多样化一致。根据随葬动物骨骼鉴定结果分析,黑水国人群肉食资源可能来源于大量家养动物,说明也摄取了较多C3畜牧肉食资源,发达的畜牧业导致大部分人骨骨胶原呈C3和C4混合信号。

  • 人骨骨胶原的δ15N值的范围为8.2‰~14.7‰(均值=10.8‰±1.1‰),比家养食草动物如牛、羊等(均值=6.3‰±2.0‰)高出4.5个千分点[2],说明黑水国地区先民蛋白质摄入量高,可能食用了较多的肉类。根据上文提及的汉晋时期河西走廊发达的畜牧业,当时人群摄食了大量的肉食资源,故导致δ15N值较高。

  • 图5 黑水国汉墓人骨胶原碳氮同位素结果散点图

  • Fig.5 Scatter plot of collagen carbon and nitrogen isotopic results of human bones from Heishui State Han tombs

  • 2.4.2 不同时期人群食谱特征

  • 从黑水国汉墓不同时期人骨胶原碳氮稳定同位素结果(图6)来看:第一期人骨胶原的δ13C值范围为-17.1‰~-10.6‰(均值=-13.3‰±1.9‰),C同位素偏C4信号,说明西汉中期偏晚人群主要摄入C4粟黍作物;第二期为-18.3‰~-11.6‰(均值=-16.2‰±1.9‰);第三期为-18.4‰~-10.2‰(均值=-16.0‰±1.5‰);第四期为-16.8‰~-15.0‰(均值=-16.0‰±0.9‰)[2]。结果显示,第二至第四期人骨胶原呈C3和C4混合信号,说明从西汉晚期至东汉时期先民饮食结构中的C3类作物比重有所增加,摄取粮食作物种类多样。西汉中期,受中央王朝屯田戍边政策影响,大量中原移民最早开始移民河西地区,并保持中原以粟黍作物为主的农业模式和以C4粟黍为主的食物结构[44]。到了西汉晚期至东汉时期,随着对河西走廊的大规模开发、河西走廊当地人群和屯田戍边移民人群融合以及丝绸之路开通,豆类作物传播至河西走廊,河西走廊原有的混合农业和畜牧业得到了进一步的发展[45]

  • δ15N值看:第一期人骨骨胶原的δ15N值范围为10.6‰~11.9‰(均值=11.2‰±0.4‰);第二期为8.5‰~12.5‰(均值=10.7‰±1.0‰);第三期为8.2‰~14.7‰(均值=10.9‰±1.1‰);第四期为10.2‰~11.8‰(均值=10.9‰±0.8‰)[2]。从结果来看,黑水国地区各时期先民蛋白质摄入量均较高。

  • 图6 黑水国汉墓不同时期人骨胶原碳氮同位素结果对比

  • Fig.6 Comparison of collagen carbon and nitrogen isotopic results between human bones of different periods from Heishui State Han tombs

  • 2.4.3 不同性别人群食谱特征

  • 黑水国汉墓可鉴定性别人骨为72具,其中男性43具,女性29具[2]。从不同性别个体骨胶原碳氮同位素结果(图7)来看:男性骨胶原δ13C值范围为-18.4‰~-10.2‰(均值=-15.4‰±2.0‰),女性为-18.0‰~-10.6‰(均值=-15.8‰±1.8‰)[2],两者并无明显差异;男性δ15N值范围为8.2‰~12.5‰(均值=10.7‰±1.1‰),女性为8.5‰~12.5‰(均值=10.8‰±1.0‰)[2],两者同样没有明显的差异。说明汉代黑水国地区男女食谱结构基本相似。

  • 图7 黑水国汉墓男性和女性骨胶原碳氮同位素结果散点图

  • Fig.7 Scatter plot of collagen carbon and nitrogen isotopic results of male and female human bones from Heishui State Han tombs

  • 2.4.4 不同年龄人群食谱特征

  • 根据不同年龄段可将黑水国汉墓人群分为三组,其中少年期(7~14岁)9例、青壮年期(15~35岁)59例、中老年期(36岁以上)25例[46]。从不同年龄段人群稳定同位素结果(图8)看:少年期人群δ13C值范围为-18.3‰~-16.1‰(均值=-17.1‰±0.7‰),青壮年期人群为-19.5‰~-11.6‰(均值=-16.0‰±1.7‰),中老年期人群为-18.1‰~-10.2‰(均值=-15.0‰±2.2‰)[2]。少年期和中老年期人群δ13C差异明显,中老年期人群食谱C4类作物比重较高,可能是食用更多粟黍类作物所致。少年期人群δ15N值范围为9.4‰~12.9‰(均值=10.8‰±1.0‰),青壮年期人群为8.5‰~14.7‰(均值=10.8‰±1.0‰),中老年期人群为9.0‰~12.4‰(均值=11.0‰±1.0‰)[2]。从结果上看三组间并没有明显差异。

  • 2.4.5 不同地区人骨碳氮同位素比较

  • 与中原地区和周边地区人骨碳氮同位素比较,汉代黑水国墓葬所在的河西走廊与邻近的青海、新疆等地区人骨碳同位素呈现C3和C4混合信号[47-50],推测先民摄取C3类作物大麦、小麦、豆类等和C4类作物粟黍等,粮食来源多样化,同时摄食了大量以C3类植物为食物的畜牧肉食资源。中原地区大部分人骨碳同位素呈现C4信号[4451-52],说明汉代先民以C4类为主,兼有少量的C3类,可能中原地区先民以粟作农业为主,兼营稻、麦或豆等其他C3类作物,同时也曾摄取较多的C3畜牧肉食资源。

  • 图8 黑水国汉墓不同年龄段人骨碳氮同位素结果散点图

  • Fig.8 Scatter plot of carbon and nitrogen isotopic results of human bones of different age groups from Heishui State Han tombs

  • 河西走廊自青铜时代早期至铁器时代人骨同位素逐渐呈现出C4信号向C3、C4混合信号转变,且C3信号逐渐增强的信号,麦类作物在河西走廊人群中呈逐渐增加的趋势[4553-54],到了西汉晚期以后随着河西地区当地人群和屯田戍边移民人群的融合,河西走廊黑水国人群摄取粮食和肉食资源出现多样化,导致该地区人群呈C3和C4混合信号。

  • 汉代以来,由于人口压力的加大和生产加工技术的进步等,政府开始大力推行冬小麦的种植[55]。汉代小麦虽然作为主要作物在北方地区推广种植[3556-57],但是始终没有改变以C4粟黍作物为主要粮食作物的传统,麦类作物的摄取仍然不高。

  • 黑水国汉墓位于河西走廊中段,中原以粟黍为基础的农业人群迁徙至此后,可能逐渐适应当地的农业生产模式,将麦类作物纳入生产体系,开展麦粟混作农业,并且麦类作物在饮食中的比重不断提升。位于河西地区东段白银地区的黄湾汉墓,其先民的δ13C平均值(-9.5‰)显示其食谱呈现以C4类食物为主的信号(表2和图9),说明人群可能更多地食用了粟黍作物和食用C4食物的动物。而张掖地区先民δ13C平均值(-16.0‰)说明其既食用C3也食用C4类食物。这可能是由于黄湾汉墓人群受中原文化影响更大,当地的牧民适应了中原地区粟黍农业的生产模式,又可能是由中原迁入的人群保持了原有的生产生活方式,更多地食用粟黍类作物[2]。两地区先民食谱的差异说明大规模的人群迁徙会增强农业人群和游牧人群间的交流,进而促进文化的融合。

  • 图9 黑水国汉墓和黄湾汉墓人骨胶原碳氮同位素结果对比

  • Fig.9 Comparison of collagen carbon and nitrogen isotopic results between human bones from Heishui State and Huangwan Han tombs

  • 表2 黑水国汉墓和黄湾汉墓人骨胶原碳氮同位素结果对比

  • Table2 Comparison of collagen carbon and nitrogen isotopic results between human bones from Heishui State and Huangwan Han tombs

  • 3 结论

  • 黑水国地区乃至整个河西走廊在两汉至魏晋时期,因为中原王朝对河西地区的开发——伴随着河西走廊驻军屯垦、移民戍边、开渠屯田的过程,大量的中原移民和流民来到河西走廊,开始了对河西走廊的大规模开发,他们原有生活方式、风俗习惯和先进农耕工具和生产技术的传入,尤其是代田法的推广,促进了黑水国地区乃至河西农业的迅速发展,河西走廊迅速形成麦类、粟黍和豆类的混合农业。河西走廊地区在归汉之前,是月氏、乌孙、匈奴等游牧部族的领地,随着中原移民与当地人群的融合,畜牧技术得以发展,河西的畜牧业在原有的基础上有了进一步的发展。汉朝在对河西进行农业开发的同时还将其作为重要的畜牧基地而大力经营。汉王朝对河西的经营治理改变了当地的社会经济结构,使河西走廊由以畜牧业为主的地区逐步成为以农业为主且农牧并存的地区。

  • 通过黑水国墓地出土遗物,从不同的食物资源探讨了黑水国农牧业发展和汉晋先民的生业结构,进而通过整个河西走廊地区汉晋考古实物资料,结合文献资料,探讨了整个河西走廊地区汉晋时期农业和牧业的发展情况。河西农牧业的发展使河西走廊成为多种作物种植的新兴农牧区,不仅将中原农业区和西域的农牧业区连接起来,而且也将葱岭以西的农牧区联系起来,从而为丝绸之路的畅通和繁荣创造了条件。

  • 致谢:感谢在本文撰写过程中提供数据材料的甘肃省文物考古研究所陈国科所长和提供专业知识指导与论文写作建设性意见的甘肃省博物馆学术研究部李永平主任。

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